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THE 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 

OF 

ARC  HITECTURE; 

EMBRACING, 

I.  The  Orders  of  Architecture  ; 

II.  Architectural  Styles  of  various  Countries  ; 

III.  The  Nature  and  Principles  of  Design  in  Archi- 

tecture ; AND, 

IV.  An  accurate  and  complete  Glossary  of  Archi- 

tectural Terms. 

for  the  use  of 

§uiltrm,  Jmgjrtsmm,  Padpte,  €nginem, 
att&  P&jjaracs. 


EDITED  BY  JOHN  BULLOCK, 

ARCHITECT,  CIVIL  ENGINEER,  MECHANICIAN,  AND  EDITOR  OP  “THE  AMERICAN  ARTISAN,  ’> 


NEW  YORK  : 

STRINGER  & TOWNSEND.  PUBLISHERS, 

222  BROADWAY. 

1853. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  fifty-three,  by 

STRINGER  & TOWNSEND, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  U.  States  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York 


STEREOTYPED  BY  GRIFFIN  & FARNSWORTH, 
49  JOHN  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


PREFACE. 


To  condense,  in  a book  of  two  or  three  hundred  pages,  a 
treatise  which  might  justly  be  extended  to  that  extent  in 
any  one  of  its  branches,  is  a task  not  to  be  easily  and  satis- 
factorily done.  In  our  attempts  to  Americanize  our  author 
on  “ The  Orders,”  we  have  dealt  freely  with  his  fancies  and 
combative  propensities,  and  have  rejected  his  division  of  the 
Orders  into  only  three,  and  restored  the  old  division  of  five. 
American  readers  have  generally  recognized  the  old  division. 
While  we  confess  that  our  authors’  division  seems  plausible, 
yet  we  do  not  adopt  it ; for  any  division  seems  to  be  open 
to  so  many  objections,  that  we  recognize  no  necessity  for 
changing  the  old  one. 

It  need  excite  no  surprise  that,  in  our  sketch  of  Architec- 
ture in  various  countries,  we  have  not  treated  of  that  in 
America.  There  is  no  peculiar  American  style  or  order, 
and  a treatise  on  that  system  would  be  simply  a description 
of  samples  of  the  various  styles  of  architecture  which  are 
described  in  other  parts  of  the  work.  There  is  no  paucity 
of  these  examples.  In  America,  are  monuments  whose 
origin  is  enshrouded  by  the  drapery  of  unnumbered  ages. 
Through  this  drapery  glimmers  the  light  of  vague  and 
uncertain  tradition,  which  provokes  the  belief,  that  once  this 
continent  was  inhabited  by  a race  whose  advancement  in 
the  mechanic  and  fine  arts  was  fully  equal  to  our  own. 
From  the  date  of  European  immigration  commences  the 
introduction  of  architecture,  as  varied  as  the  people  that 


IV. 


PREFACE. 


settled  the  country.  It  was  not  a mixture,  of  the  various 
styles  that  was  produced,  but  there  was  practiced  copies  of 
the  various  styles  of  the  Old  World. 

We  have  dealt  freely  with  our  authors — correcting  where 
they  mistook — extending  where  we  thought  they  were  not 
clear — curtailing  where  we  imagined  they  were  too  profuse 
in  their  remarks — and  rejecting  those  illustrations  and  allu- 
sions which  possess  no  interest  to  the  American  reader. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  is  a “ rudimentary  ” 
treatise,  and  all  that  it  promises  is  to  introduce  the  reader 
into  the  porch  of  the  temple  of  Artistic  Science — doubting 
not  that  he  will  be  so  pleased  and  instructed  that  he  will  go 
in  the  temple,  even  to  the  sanctum  sanctorum — the  holy  of 
holies. 

In  our  historical  sketch,  we  could  in  but  few  instances 
give  more  than  one  illustration  of  any  one  peculiar  style. 

JOHN  BULLOCK,  Editor . 


CONTENTS. 


I.— THE  ORDERS. 

By  W.  H.  Leeds. 

II.  STYLES  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

By  T.  Bury.  ~ 

III.  DESIGN  IN  ARCHITECTURE— ITS  PRINCIPLES. 
By  E.  L.  Garbett. 


IV.  GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 
By  the  Editor. 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE* 


BOOK  I. 

THE  ORDERS. 

In  its  architectural  meaning,  the  term  order  refers  to  the 
system  of  columniation  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  is  employed  to  denote  the  columns  and  entablature  to- 
gether; in  other  words,  both  the  upright,  supporting  pillars 
and  the  horizontal  beams  and  roof,  or  trabeation,  supported 
by  them.  These  two  divisions,  combined,  constitute  an 
Order;  and  so  far  all  Orders  are  alike,  and  might  accord- 
ingly be  reduced  to  a single  one,  although  for  greater  con- 
venience they  are  divided  into  Five  leading  classes  or  fami- 
lies, distinguished  as  the  Doric,  Tuscan,  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
and  Composite.  This  is  the  general  division,  but  many 
writers  adopt  only  three — the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian, 
and  perhaps  this  would  have  been  the  more  proper  division, 
but  it  is  our  province  to  speak  of  the  divisions  as  they  are, 
rather  than  as  they  ought  to  be. 

It  would  be  a mistake  to  suppose  that  inasmuch  as  the 
Orders  are  divided  in  five  classes,  that  there  is  for  each  of 
them  one  fixed,  uniform  character,  for  such  a belief  has  led 
to  a plodding  mechanical  treatment  of  the  respective  Orders 
themselves,  nothing  being  left  for  the  Architect  to  do,  so 
far  as  the  Order  which  he  employs  is  concerned,  than  mere- 
ly to  follow  the  example  which  he  has  selected, — in  other 
words,  merely  to  copy  instead  of  designing,  by  imitating  his 
model  with  freedom  and  spirit. 

Each  of  the  leading  classes  are  distinct  from  the  others, 
yet  comprise  many  varieties  or  species, — which,  however  much 
they  may  differ  with  respect  to  minor  considerations,  all  evi- 


8 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


dently  belong  to  one  and  the  same  style,  which  we  call  Order. 
We  have  now  to  consider  their  constituent  parts,  that  is, 
those  which  apply  to  every  order  alike.  Hitherto  it  has 
been  usual  with  most  writers,  to  treat  of  an  Order  as  con- 
sisting of  three  principal  parts  or  divisions,  viz.,  pedestal, 
column,  and  entablature.  The  first  of  these,  however,  can- 
not by  any  means  be  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  an 
Order.  So  far  from  being  an  essential,  it  is  only  an  acci- 
dental one, — one,  moreover,  of  Roman  invention,  and  appli- 
cable only  under  particular  circumstances.  The  pedestal 
no  more  belongs  to  an  Order  than  an  attic  or  podium  placed 
above  the  entablature.  In  the  idea  of  an  Order  we  do  not 
include  what  is  extraneous  to  the  Order  itself;  it  makes  no 
difference  whether  the  columns  stand  immediately  upon  the 
ground  or  floor,  or  are  raised  above  it.  They  almost  invari- 
ably are  so  raised,  because,  were  the  columns  to  stand  im- 
mediately upon  the  ground  or  a mere  pavement,  the  effect 
would  be  comparatively  mean  and  unsatisfactory ; the  edifice 
would  hardly  seem  to  stand  firmly,  and,  for  want  of  apparent 
footing,  would  look  as  if  it  had  sunk  in  the  ground,  or  the 
soil  had  accumulated  around  it.  With  the  view,  therefore, 
of  increasing  height  for  the  whole  structure,  and  otherwise 
enhancing  its  effect,  the  Greeks  placed  their  temples  upon  a 
hold  substructure,  composed  of  gradini,  or  deep  steps,  or 
upon  some  sort  of  continuous  stylobate ; either  of  which  modes 
is  altogether  different  from,  and  affords  no  precedent  for,  the 
pedestal  of  modern  writers.  Essential  as  some  form  of  sty- 
lobate is  to  the  edifice  itself,  it  does  not  properly  belong  to 
it,  any  more  than  that  equally  essential — in  fact,  more  indis- 
pensable part — the  roof. 

The  pedestal  being  discarded  as  something  apart  from  the 
Order  itself,  the  latter  is  reduced  to  the  two  grand  divisions 
of  column  and  entablature,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  in- 
to three  distinct  parts  or  members,  viz.,  the  column,  into 
base,  shaft,  and  capital;  the  entablature,  into  architrave, 
frieze,  and  cornice;  so  that  the  latter  is  to  the  entablature 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


9 


what  the  capital  is  to  the  column,  namely,  its  crowning  mem- 
ber— that  which  completes  it  to  the  eye.  Yet,  although  the 
above  divisions  of  column  and  entablature  hold  good  with  re- 
gard to  the  general  idea  of  an  order,  the  primitive  Greek  or 
Doric  one  does  not  answer  to  what  has  just  been  said,  inas- 
much as  it  has  no  base — that  is,  no  mouldings  which  distinctly 
mark  the  foot  of  the  column  as  a separate  and  ornamented 
member.  Hence,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  this  Order 
is  not  so  complete  as  the  others,  since  it  wants  that  member 
below  which  corresponds  with  the  capital  above.  Still,  the 
Grecian  Doric  is  complete  in  itself — it  needs  no  base:  in  fact, 
does  not  admit  of  such  addition,  without  forfeiting  much  of 
its  present  character,  and  thus  becoming  something  different. 
Were  there  a distinct  base,  the  mouldings  composing  it  could 
not  very  well  exceed  what  is  now  the  lower  diameter  or  ac- 
tual foot  of  the  column ; because,  were  it  to  do  so,  either  the 
base  would  become  too  bulky,  in  proportion  to  the  capital, 
or  the  latter  must  be  increased,  so  as  to  make  it  correspond  in 
size  with  the  enlarged  lower  extremity.  Even  then,  that 
closeness  of  inter columnation  (spacing  of  columns)  which  con- 
tributes so  much  to  the  majestic  solidity  that  characterizes 
the  genuine  Doric,  could  not  be  observed:  unless  the  columns 
were  put  considerably  further  apart,  the  bases  would  scarcely 
allow  sufficient  passage  between  them.  The  only  way  of 
escaping  from  these  objections  and  difficulties,  is  by  making 
the  shaft  of  the  column  considerably  more  slender ; so  that 
what  was  before  the  measure  of  the  lower  diameter  of  the 
shaft  itself,  becomes  that  of  the  base.  That  can  be  done — - 
has  been  done — at  least  something  like  it;  but  the  result  is 
an  attenuated  Roman  or  Italian  Doric,  differing  altogether 
in  proportions  from  the  original  type,  or  order.  The  shaft 
no  longer  tapers  visibly  upwards,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
expands  below. 

Before  we  come  to  speak  of  the  orders  severally  and  more 
in  detail,  there  are  some  matters  which  require  to  be  noticed ; 
one  of  which  is  the  origin  of  the  Greek  system  of  columnation, 


10  HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 

or  the  prototype  upon  which  it  was  modelled.  Following 
Yitruyius,  nearly  all  writers  have  agreed  to  recognize  in  the 
columnar  style  of  the  ancients  the  primitive  timber  hut,  as 
furnishing  the  first  hints  for,  and  rudiments  of,  it.  Such 
theory,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  sufficiently  plausible,  if  only 
because  it  can  account  very  cleverly  for  many  minor  circum- 
stances. Unfortunately,  it  does  not  account  at  all  for,  or 
rather  is  in  strong  contradiction  to,  the  character  of  the 
earliest  extant  monuments  of  Greek  architecture.  Timber 
construction  would  have  led  to  very  different  proportions,  and 
different  tastes.  Had  the  prototype  or  model  been  of  that 
material,  slenderness  and  lightness,  rather  than  ponderosity 
and  solidity,  would  have  been  aimed  at;  and  the  progressive 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  Orders  would  have  been  re- 
versed, since  the  earliest  of  them  all  would  also  have  been  the 
lightest  of  them  all.  The  principles  of  stone  construction  have 
so  evidently  dictated  and  determined  the  forms  and  propor- 
tions of  the  original  Doric  style,  as  to  render  the  idea  of  its 
being  fashioned  upon  a model  in  the  other  material  little 
better  than  an  absurd,  though  time-honored  fiction.  Infi- 
nitely more  probable  is  it,  that  the  Greeks  derived  their 
system  of  architecture  from  the  Egyptians  ; because,  much 
as  it  differs  from  that  of  the  latter  people  with  regard  to 
taste  and  matters  of  ornamentation,  it  partakes  very  largely 
of  the  same  constitutional  character.  At  any  rate,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  timber  origin  applies  as  well  to  the  Egyptian  as 
to  the  Hellenic  or  Grecian  style.  Indeed,  if  there  be  any- 
thing at  all  that  favors  such  doctrine,  it  is,  that  construction 
with  blocks  of  stone  would  naturally  have  suggested  square 
pillars,  instead  of  round  ones;  the  latter  requiring  much 
greater  labor  and  skill  to  prepare  them  than  the  others. 
But,  as  their  pyramids  and  obelisks  sufficiently  testify,  the 
most  prodigal  expenditure  of  labor  was  not  at  all  regarded 
by  the  Egyptians.  That,  it  will  perhaps  be  said,  does  not 
account  for  the  adoption  of  the  circular  or  cylindrical  form 
for  columns.  We  have  therefore  to' look  for  some  sufficiently 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


11 


probable  motive  for  the  adoption  of  that  form ; and  we  think 
we  find  it  in  convenience.  In  order  to  afford  due  support 
to  the  massive  blocks  of  stones  placed  upon  them,  the 
columns  were  not  only  very  bulky  in  proportion  to  their 
length,  but  were  placed  so  closely  together,  not  only  in  the 
fronts  of  porticos,  but  also  within  them,  that  they  would 
scarcely  have  left  any  open  space.  Such  inconvenience  was 
accordingly  remedied  by  making  the  pillars  round  instead  of 
square.  Should  such  conjectural  reason  for  the  adoption  of 
circular  columns  be  rejected,  it  is  left  to  others  to  propound 
a more  satisfactory  one,  or  to  abide,  as  many  probably  will 
do,  by  the  old  notion  of  columns  being  so  shaped  in  order  to 
imitate  the  stems  of  trees.  It  is  enough  that  whatever 
accounts  for  the  columns  being  round  in  Egyptian  architect 
ture,  accounts  also  for  their  being  the  same  in  that  of  the 
Greeks. 

Among  other  fanciful  notions  entertained  with  regard  to 
columns  and  their  proportions,  is  that  of  the  different  orders 
of  columns  being  proportioned  in  accordance  with  the  human 
figure.  Thus  the  Doric  is  said  to  represent  a robust  male 
figure,  and  those  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  female  ones, 
— the  Ionic,  a matron;  the  Corinthian,  a less  portly  speci- 
men of  feminality.  Now,  so  far  from  there  being  any  gen- 
eral similitude  between  a Grecian  Doric  column  and  a ro- 
bust man,  their  proportions  are  directly  opposite, — the 
greater  diameter  of  the  column  being  at  its  foot,  while  that 
of  the  man  is  at  his  shoulders.  The  one  tapers  upwards,  the 
other  downwards.  If  the  human  figure  and  its  proportions 
had  been  considered,  columns  would,  in  conformity  with  such 
type,  have  been  wider  at  the  top  of  their  shafts  than  below, 
and  would  have  assumed  the  shape  of  a terminus  of  a mummy 
chest.  With  regard  to  the  other  orders  mentioned,  it  is 
sufficient  to  observe,  that  if  so  borrowed  at  all,  the  idea 
must  have  been  preposterous.  We  happen  to  have  a well 
known  example  of  statues  or  human  figures,  and  those,  more- 
over, female  ones,  being  substituted  for  columns  beneath  an 


2 


HISTORY  AKD  RUDIMENTS 


entablature ; and  so  far  are  they  from  confirming  the  pre- 
tended analogy  between  the  Ionic  column  and  the  propor- 
tions of  a female,  that  they  decidedly  contradict  it,  those 
figures  being  greatly  bulkier  in  their  general  mass  than  the 
bulkiest  and  stoutest  columns  of  the  Doric  Order.  At  any 
rate,  one  hypothesis  might  satisfy  those  who  will  not  be  sat- 
isfied without  some  fancy  of  the  kind,  because  two  together 
do  not  agree ; if  columns  originated  in  the  imitation  of  stems 
of  trees,  we  can  dispense  with  the  imitation  of  men  and  women, 
and  vice  versa. 

Some  may  think  it  scarcely  worth  while  to  notice  such 
fancies,  yet  they  are  a part  of  architecture  as  generally  taught 
and  usually  understood^  at  least,  in  this  country. 

We  do  not  pretend  to  explain  and  trace,  step  by  step,  the 
progress  of  the  Doric  Order,  and  of  the  column  or  system  of 
the  Greeks,  from  their  first  rudiments  and  formation.  We 
have  only  the  results  of  such  progressive  formation  or  devel- 
opement;  of  the  actual  formation  itself  we  neither  know  nor 
can  we  know  anything.  The  utmost  that  can  now  be  done 
is  to  take  the  results  themselves,  and  from  them  reason  back- 
wards to  causes  and  motives.  Adopting  such  a course,  we 
may  first  observe,  that  there  is  a very  striking  and  charac- 
teristic difference  between  Egyptian  and  Grecian  taste  and 
practice  in  one  respect:  in  the  former  style  the  columns  are 
invariably  cylindrical , or  nearly  so, — in  the  other  they  are 
conical,  that  is,  taper  upwards,  and  in  some  instances  so  much 
so,  that  were  they  prolonged  to  double  their  height,  they 
would  be  almost  perfect  cones,  and  terminate  like  a spire. 
This  tapering  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the  stems  of  trees, 
taking  from  their  stem  the  trunk,  from  above  which  the 
branches  begin  to  shoot  out.  It  appears  to  have  been  adopted 
for  purely  artistic  reasons,  certainly  not  for  the  sake  of  any 
positive  advantage,  since  the  diminution  of  the  shaft,  and  the 
great  contraction  of  the  diameter  just  below  the  capital, 
must  rather  decrease  than  at  all  add  to  the  strength  of  the 
column. 


OP  ARCHITECTURE. 


13 


Wliat  then  are  the  artistic  qualities  so  obtained  ? We 
reply, — variety  and  contrast  and  the  expression  of  strength 
without  offensive  heaviness.  The  sudden  or  very  perceptible 
diminution  of  the  shaft,— it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  our 
remarks  refer  exclusively  to  the  original  Greek  Style  or 
Doric  Order, — produces  a double  effect  ; it  gives  the  column 
an  expression  of  greater  stability  than  it  otherwise  would, 
combined  with  comparative  lightness.  What  is  diminution 
upwards,  is  expansion  downwards  ; and  similar  difference 
and  contrast  take  place  with  respect  to  the  intercolumns, 
although  in  a reverse  manner,  such  intercolumns  being  wider 
at  top  than  at  bottom.  So  far  the  principle  of  contrast  here 
may  be  said  to  be  two-fold,  although  one  of  the  two  sorts 
of  contrast  inevitably  results  from  the  other.  ' Were  it  not 
for  the  great  diminution  of  the  shaft,  the  columns  would 
appear  to  be  too  closely  put  together,  and  the  intercolumns 
much  too  narrow — that  is,  according,at  least,  to  the  mode  of 
intercolumnation  practised  by  the  Greeks  in  most  of  their 
structures  in  the  Doric  Style  ; whereas  such  offensive  appear- 
ance was  avoided  by  the  shaft  being  made  considerably 
smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom, — consequently  the 
intercolumns  wider  above  than  below,  in  the  same  ratio  ; so 
that  columns  which  at  their  bases  were  little  more  than  one 
diameter  apart,  became  more  than  two — that  is,  two  upper 
diameters  apart  at  the  top  of  their  shafts,  or  the  neckings 
of  their  capitals.  In  this  style  everything  was  calculated  to 
produce  a character  of  majestic  simplicity, — varying,  how- 
ever, or  rather  progressing,  from  heaviness  and  stern  severity 
to  comparative  lightness  of  proportions, — for  examples  differ 
greatly  in  this  respect  : in  some  of  the  earlier  ones  the 
columns  are  not  more  than  four  diameters  in  height,  while  in 
some  of  the  later  they  are  upwards  of  six,  which  last  men- 
tioned proportions  not  only  amount  to  slenderness,  but  also 
destroy  others.  The  capital  itself  may  be  proportioned  the 
same  as  before  relatively  to  the  diameter  of  the  column,  but 
it  cannot  possibly  bear  the  same  ratio  as  before  to  its  height. 


14 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


The  average  proportions  for  that  member  are  one  diameter 
for  its  width  at  its  abacus,  and  half  a diameter  for  its  depth  ; 
consequently,  if  the  entire  column  be  only  four  diameters  in 
height,  the  capital  is  one-eighth  of  it,  or  equal  to  one-seventh 
of  the  shaft  ; whereas,  if  the  column  be  six  or  more  diame- 
ters, the  capital  becomes  only  one-twelfth  of  the  column,  or 
even  less,  so  that  the  latter  appears  thin  and  attenuated,  and 
the  other  member  too  small  and  insignificant.  Yet  though 
the  original  Greek  Order  or  style  exhibits  considerable  diver- 
sity with  respect  to  mere  proportions,  it  was  otherwise  very 
limited  in  its  powers  of  expression,  and  moreover  something 
quite  distinct  from  the  nominal  Doric  of  the  Romans  and 
Italians,  as  will  be  evident  when  we  compare  the  latter  with  it 
Before  we  enter  upon  this  part  of  our  subject,  and  pre- 
vious to  an  examination  of  the  details  of  the  several  orders, 
it  should  be  observed  that  the  diameter,  that  is  the  lower 
diameter  of  the  column,  is  the  standard  by  which  all  the 
other  parts  and  members  of  an  order  are  measured.  The 
diameter  is  divided  into  60  minutes , or  into  two  halves  or 
modules  of  30  minutes  each  ; and  those  minutes  are  again 
subdivided  into  parts  or  seconds  when  extreme  accuracy  of 
measurement  is  required  ; which  two  last  are  noticed  : 4'. 
10 »,  for  instance,  meaning  four  minutes  and  ten  seconds. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


15 


DORIC  ORDER.  Cymatium 

Fillet 


It  has  been  already 
observed,  that  in  the 
genuine  Doric  the  col- 
umn consists  of  one  shaft 
and  capital,  which  latter 
is  composed  of  merely 
an  echinus  and  abacus,  the 
first  being  a circular  con- 
vex moulding,  spreading 
out  beneath  the  other 
member,  which, although 
a very  important  one,  is 
no  more  than  a plain 
and  shallow  square  block 
upon  which  the  archi- 
trave rests,  not  only  firm- 
ly and  safely,  but  so  that 
the  utmost  expression  of 
security  is  obtained,  and 
pronounced  emphatically 
to  the  eye.  Such  expres- 
sion arises  from  the  aba- 
cus being  larger  than  the 
soffit,  or  under  surface  of 
the  architrave  itself ; 
and  as  the  former  corres- 
ponds, or  nearly  so,  with 
the  lower  diameter  of 
the  shaft,  it  serves  to 


Architrave 


Abacus 

Echinus 

Amulets 


make  evident  at  a glance 
that  the  foot  of  the  col- 
umn is  greater  than  the 
soffit  of  the  architrave 

placed  upon  the  columns. U 1—1 J — 1— 

Thus,  as  measured  at  either  extremity,  the  column  is 


16 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


greater  tlian  the  depth  or  thickness  of  the  architrave, 
and  projects  beyond  the  architrave  and  general  plane  of  the 
entablatuure.  Now  this  would  produce  a most  unsightly  effect 
were  the  columns  of  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  diameter 
throughout.  In  such  case  they  would  appear  not  only  too 
large,  but  most  clumsily  so,  and  the  entablature  would  have 
the  look  of  being  set  back  in  the  most  awkward  and  most 
unaccountable  manner.  Instead  of  which,  the  architrave, 
and  consequently  the  general  plane  of  the  whole  entablature, 
actually  overhangs  the  upper  part  of  the  whole  shaft,  in  a 
plane  about  midway  between  the  smallest  diameter  of  the 
column,  just  below  the  capital  and  the  face  of  the  abacus. 
Even  this,  the  overhanging  of  the  entablature,  would  be  not 
a little  offensive  to  the  eye,  were  the  abacus  no  larger  than 
the  architrave  is  deep;  whereas,  being  larger,  it  projects 
forward  farther  than  the  face  of  the  architrave,  thereby  pro- 
ducing a powerful  degree  of  one  species  of  artistic  effect, 
namely,  contrast,- — and  if  contrast,  of  variety  also;  for 
though  there  may  be  variety  without  contrast,  there  cannot 
be  contrast  without  variety.  Another  circumstance  to  be 
considered  is,  that  were  not  such  projection  beyond  the  fkce 
of  the  architrave  given  to  the  abacus,  that  and  the  rest  of 
the  capital  could  not  correspond  with  the  foot  of  the  shaft, 
and  thus  equalize  the  two  extremities  of  the  entire  column. 
As  now  managed,  all  contradictions  are  reconciled,  and  the 
different  sorts  of  contrast  are  made  to  contribute  to  and 
greatly  enhance  general  harmony.  In  the  outline  of  the 
column  we  perceive,  first  contraction, — Ihen  expansion,  and 
that  in  both  directions, — for  in  like  manner  as  the  column 
diminishes  upwards  and  the  capital  expands  from  it,  its 
shaft  may  be  said  to  expand  and  increase  in  bulk  down- 
wards, so  as  to  agree  with  the  abacus  or  upper  extremity. 

The  Doric  column  was  generally  fluted — that  is,  cut  into  a 
series  of  ridges  upon  its  surfaces.  The  generally-received 
theory  is,  that  this  fluting  represents  cracks  or  crevices  in 
the  stems  of  trees,  or  from  the  streaking  of  rain  on  the  shafts 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


n 


of  columns.  It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  truth  or  falsity 
of  that  theory.  It  is  sufficient  that  there  are  good  artistic 
reasons  why  it  should  be  so:  with  the  same,  or  very  nearly 
the  same  solidity  as  before,  it  causes  the  columns  to  appear 
much  less  heavy  than  it  otherwise  would  do,  and  contributes 
to  a pleasing  diversity  of  light  and  shade.  Being  upon  a 
curved  surface,  the  channels  serve  to  render  the  circularity 
of  the  columns  more  apparent,  since,  though  they  are  all 
of  the  same  width,  they  show  narrower  and  narrower  to  the 
eye  on  each  side  of  the  centre  one,  no  matter  in  what  direc- 
tion the  column  is  viewed.  Here,  then,  we  have  variety, 
combined  with  uniformity,  and  a certain  apparent  or.  optical 
irregularity,  with  what  we  know  to  be  perfect  regularity. 

In  the  Doric  Order  the  number  of  channels  is  either  sixteen 
or  twenty,  afterwards  increased  in  the  other  Orders  to  twenty- 
four,  for  they  are  invariably  of  an  even  number,  capable  of 
being  divided  by  four,  so  that  there  shall  always-be  a centre 
flute  on  each  side  of  the  column,  that  is,  in  a line  with  the 
middle  of  each  side  of  the  abacus.  Doric  flutings  are  much 
broader  and  shallower  than  those  of  the  other  Orders.  The 
mode  of  fluting  Doric  columns  with  mere  arrises  between  the 
channels,  instead  of  fillets , has  been  retained  by  the  moderns, 
as  characteristic  of  the  order.  On  the  original  Doric,  almost 
every  part  is  marked  by  breadth,  or  by  flatness,  or  by  sharp- 
ness. There  are  no  curved  mouldings  or  surfaces,  except  the 
cymatium  of  the  cornice  or  the  echinus  of  the  capital,  which 
last  is  generally  kept  exceedingly  flat.  All  of  the  parts  are  in 
perfect  keeping  with  the  style.  The  horizontal,  annular,  nar- 
row channels,  or  incisions  beneath  the  echinus  of  the  capital,  are 
probably  merely  for  the  sake  of  effect — of  producing  shadow, 
and  increasing  the  proportions  of  the  capital,  to  which  they 
seem  to  belong.  The  lowermost  groove  may  give  the  capi- 
tal the  appearance  of  being  a separate  piece,  merely  joined 
on  to  the  shaft,  without  such  joining  being  concealed.  It 
marks  the  commencement  of  the  capital,  the  portion  above  it 
of  the  shaft  being  thereby  converted  into  the  hyjpotrachelium 


18 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


or  necking  of  the  capital  itself,  which  is  thus  enlarged  in 
appearance,  without  having  actually  increased,  and  ren- 
dered unduly  heavy.  In  some  examples  of  the  order,  this 
groove  is  a mere  line,  and  in  others  it  is  omitted  altogether. 
The  office  of  the  echinus,  by  expanding  out,  to  connect  the 
diminished  upper  end  of  the  column  with  the  overhanging 
abacus,  and  the  former  being  circular, *and  the  latter  square, 
but  adapted  to  each  other  in  size,  a beautiful  combination  is 
produced  of  a circle  inscribed  within  a square ; and  the  result 
is  variety,  contrast,  and  harmony.  In  its  profile,  or  section, 
by  which  latter  term  is  understood  the  contour  of  any  mould- 
ing, or  other  member,  it  is  usually  very  flat — little  more  than 
a portion  of  a cone  (turned  downwards),  with  scarcely  any 
perceptible  degree  of  convexity,  except  just  beneath  the  aba- 
cus, where  it  is  suddenly  rounded  and  diminished,  so  that  the 
abacus  does  not  seem  to  press  upon  or  compress  it  too  much. 

The  epistylium,  or  architrave,  is  the  first  or  lowest  division 
of  the  entablature.  It  is  no  more  than  a plain  surface, 
whose  standard  height,  including  the  taenia,  or  fillet,  which 
finishes  it,  and  separates  it  from  the  frieze,  is  equal  to  the 
upper  diameter  of  the  column.  The  middle  division  of  the 
entablature  is  the  frieze,  which  is  a very  characteristic  feature 
of  this  Order,  being  invariably  distinguished  by  its  tryglyphs 
and  metopes.  The  triglyphs  are  upright  channelled  blocks, 
affixed  to,  or  projecting  from,  the  frieze,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  originally  intended  to  represent  the  ends  of  inner 
beams,  laid  upon  the  architrave  transversely.  The  metopes, 
on  the  contrary,  are  not  architectural  members,  but  merely 
the  intervals  or  spaces  between  the  triglyphs ; so  that,  with- 
out the  latter,  there  could  not  be  the  others,  because  it  is 
triglyphs  which  produce  the  metopes.  With  slight  varia- 
tions in  different  examples,  the  frieze  is  about  the  same 
height  as  the  architrave — a trifle  less,  rather  than  more; 
and  the  average  proportion  for  the  breadth  of  the  triglyphs 
is  the  mean  diameter  of  the  column,  or  that  taken  midway 
of  the  shaft.  The  face  of  the  triglyph  has  two  glyphs,  or 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


19 


channels,  carved  upon  it,  and  its  edges  beveled  off  into  a 
half  channel,  thus  making  what  is  equal  to  a third  glyph — 
whence  the  name  triglyph,  or  thru-channelled.  The  fillet  and 
guttae  attached  to  the  taenia  of  the  architrave  immediately 
beneath  each  triglyph,  and  corresponding  with  it  in  width, 
belongs  to  the  triglyph,  although  it  shows  itself  upon  the 
architrave.  These  small  conical  guttae,  or  drops,  are  sup- 
posed by  some  to  represent  drops  of  rain  that  have  trickled 
down  the  channels  of  the  triglyph,  and  settled  beneath  the 
ledge  of  the  architrave.  Others  suppose  them  to  have  been 
intended  to  indicate  the  heads  of  nails,  screws,  or  studs. 
The  artistic  intention  would  seem  to  be  to  impart  somewhat 
of  decoration  to  the  architrave,  to  break  the  monotony  of  the 
otherwise  uninterrupted  line  of  the  taenia,  and  to  connect  to 
the  eye,  at  least,  the  architrave  and  frieze  together.  The 
architrave  thus  exhibits,  in  a fainter  degree,  the  same  system 
of  placing  ornamental  members  at  regular  distances  from 
each  other,  as  is  so  energetically  pronounced  in  the  frieze 
itself. 

One  triglyph  is  placed  over  every  column,  and  one  or 
more  intermediately  over  every  inter-column  (or  space  be- 
tween two  columns),  at  such  distance  from  each  other,  that 
the  metopes  are  square;  in  other  words,  the  height  of  the 
triglyph  is  the  measure  for  the  distance  between  it  and  the 
next  one.  In  the  best  Greek  examples  of  the  Order,  there 
is  only  a single  triglypli  over  each  inter-column,  which  is  the 
closest  of  all,  the  distance  from  axis  to  axis  of  the  columns 
being  limited  to  the  space  occupied  above  by  two  metopes 
and  two  triglyphs,  i.  e.,  one  whole  tryglyph  and  two  halves 
of  triglyphs.  The  width  of  the  inter-columns  cannot  be  at 
all  less  than  the  proportion  above  mentioned ; neither  can  it 
be  increased  without  a second  tryglyph — and  if  a second  tri- 
glyph, a second  metope  also,  over  each  inter-column,  thus 
augmenting  the  distance  between  the  columns  half  as  much 
again,  which  becomes,,  perhaps  too  much,  the  difference 
between  that  and  the  other  modes,  being  considerably  more 


20 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMEMTS 


than  the  diameter  of  the  column;  whereas,  in  the  other 
Orders,  the  inter-columns  may  be  made,  at  pleasure,  either 
a little  wider  or  narrower  than  usual.  The  end  triglyphs 
of  the  Grecian  Doric  are  placed  quite  up  to  the  edge,  O' 
outer  angle  of  the  frieze. 

The  Doric  cornice  is  the  last  division  of  the  entablature. 
It  is  about  a third  or  even  more  than  a third  less  than  the 
others,  and  may  itself  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts 
or  members,  viz.,  the  corona , with  the  mutules  and  other  bed 
mouldings  beneath  it,  and  the  epitithetas  above  it.  The  mu- 
tales  are  thin  plates  or  shallow  blocks  attached  to  the  under 
side  or  soffit  of  the  corona,  over  each  triglyph  and  each  me- 
tope, with  the  former  of  which  they  correspond  in  breadth, 
and  their  soffits  or  und.er-surfaces  are  wrought  with  three 
rows  of  guttae  or  drops,  conical  or  otherwise  shaped,  each 
row  consisting  of  six  guttae,  or  the  same  number  as  those 
beneath  each  triglyph.  Nothing  can  be  more  artistically 
disposed ; in  like  manner,  as  an  intermediate  triglyph  is  placed 
over  every  two  columns,  so  is  an  intermediate  mutale  over 
every  two  triglyphs.  The  smaller  members  increase  in  num- 
ber as  they  decrease  in  size;  and  in  the  upper  and  finishing 
part  of  the  Order,  the  eye  is  led  on  horizontally,  instead  of 
being  confined  vertically  to  the  lines  indicated  by  the  columns 
below.  The  corona  is  merely  a boldly  projecting  flat  mem- 
ber, not  greatly  exceeding  in  its  depth  the  abacus  of  the 
capital;  and  in  some  examples  it  is  even  less.  The  epitithe- 
tas,  or  uppermost  member  of  the  cornice,  is  sometimes  a 
cymnatium,  or  wavy  mouldering,  convex  below  and  concave 
above;  sometimes  an  echinus  mouldering,  similar  in  profile 
to  the  echinus  of  the  capital.  The  cornice  may  be  said  to 
be  to  the  entablature,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  Order,  what 
the  capital  is  to  the  column, — completing  and  concluding  it 
in  a very  artistic  manner.  By  its  projection  and  the  shadow 
which  it  casts,  the  cornice  gives  great  spirit  and  relief  to  the 
entablature,  which  would  else  appear  both  heavy  and  unfin- 
ished. In  the  horizontal  cornice  beneath  a pediment,  tbe 


OP  ARCHITECTURE. 


21 


epitithetas  is  omitted,  and  shows  itself  only  in  the  sloping, 
or  racking  cornices,  as  they  are  called,  along  the  sides  of  the 
pediment. 

Antce. — Pilasters,  as  well  as  columns,  belong  to  an  Order, 
and  in  modern  practice  are  frequently  substituted  indiffer- 
ently for  columns,  where  the  latter  would  be  engaged  or  at- 
tached to  a wall.  In  Grecian  architecture,  however,  the 
antce , — as  they  are  thus  termed,  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  pilasters, — are  never  employed.  They  are  never  placed 
consecutively,  or  in  any  series,  but  merely  as  a facing  at  the 
end  of  a projecting  wall,  as  where  a portico  is  enclosed  at 
each  end  by  the  walls  forming  the  sides  of  the  structure,  in 
which  case  it  is  described  as  a portico  in  antis.  Although 
they  accompany  columns,  and  in  the  case  just  mentioned, 
range  in  the  same  line  with  them,  antae  differ  from  them  in- 
asmuch as  their  shafts  are  not  diminished;  for  which  reason 
their  faces  are  not  made  so  wide  as  the  diameter  of  the  col- 
umns, neither  are  their  capitals  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
and  both  shaft  and  capital  would  be  exceedingly  clumsy. 
The  expanding  echinus  of  the  column  capital  is  therefore 
suppressed,  and  one  or  more  very  slightly  projecting  facice , 
the  uppermost  of  which  is  frequently  hollowed  out  below,  so 
as  to  form  in  section  what  is  called  the  “bird’s  nest”  mould- 
ing. In  a portico  in  antis  the  want  of 
greater  congruity  between  the  antae  and 
the  columns  is  made  up  for  by  various  con- 
trasts. Flatness  of  surface  is  opposed  to  ro- 
tundity, vertical  lines  to  inclined  ones  (those 
of  the  outline  and  flutings,  of  the  column) 
and  uniformity,  in  regard  to  light,  to  the 
mingled  play  of  light  and  shade  on  the  shafts  of  the  columns. 

The  Greeks  never  channelled  the  faces  of  their  antce , 
whereas  the  moderns  flute  their  pilasters  as  well  as  columns. 
The  artistic  reason  for  such  a distinction  would  seem  to  have 
been  t ^ prevent  harshnesss  and  dryness  of  effect — all  the 
lines  being  parallel  to  each  other,  while  in  the  columns  all 


22 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


the  lines  approach  each  other  towards  the  top  and  would 
meet  if  the  column  were  extended  far  enough. 

Pediment. — The  pediment  may  properly  be  considered  as 
no  part  of  the  Order,  but  it  serves  to  illustrate  how  a figure 
which,  considered  merely  in  itself,  is  generally  regarded  as 
neither  beautiful  nor  applicable  to  architectural  purposes, 
may  be  rendered  eminently  beautiful  and  satisfactory  to  the 
eye.  The  pediment  must,  when  it  does  appear,  be  in  accord- 
ance with  the  order  itself,  or  that  front  of  the  building  which 
is  beneath  the  pediment ; consequently  the  pitch  of  the  latter 
must  be  regarded  by  circumstances, — must  be  either  greater 
or  less  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  front  itself.  So 
far  from  being  increased  in  the  same  ratio,  the  wider  the 
front, — the  greater  the  number  of  columns  at  the  end  of  the 
building, — the  lower  must  the  pediment  be  kept,  because  the 
front  itself  becomes  of  low  proportions  in  the  same  degree  as 
it  is  extended  or  widened.  Under  all  circumstances,  the 
height  of  the  pediment  must  remain  pretty  nearly  the  same, 
and  be  determined,  not  by  width  or  horizontal  extent,  but 
by  the  height  of  what  is  beneath  it.  The  height  of  the 
pediment  or  its  tympanum  (the  triangular  surface  included 
between  the  horizontal  cornice  of  the  Order,  and  the  two 
racking  cornices  of  the  pediment)  never  greatly  exceeds  the 
depth  or  height  of  the  entablature  ; for  were  it  to  do  so,  the 
pediment  would  become  too  large  and  heavy,  would  take  off 
from  the  importance  of  the  Order,  and  appear  to  load  its 
entablature  with  an  extraneous  mass  which  it  was  never  cal- 
culated to  bear.  It  was  a very  usual  practice  among  the 
ancients  to  fill  the  whole  of  the  tympanum  of  the  pediment 
with  sculpture,  and  also  the  metopes  of  the  frieze,  by  which 
the  latter  instead  of  being  mere  blank  spaces  between  the 
triglyphs,  were  converted  into  ornamental  features. 

MODERN  DORIC. 

The  Modern  Doric  resembles  the  original  one  in  tjie  mode 
of  fluting  the  arrises  instead  of  fillet — the  general  form  of 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


28 


capital  composed  of  echinus  and  abacus,  and  the  triglyphs 
upon  the  frieze.  The  differences  are  : the  column  is  increased 
from  six  to  eight  diameters.  The  sunk  annulets  beneath  the 
capital  were  omitted  or  converted  into  fillets  ; the  capital 
was  increased  in  depth  by  a distinct  necking  being  given  to 
it,  divided  from  the  shaft  by  a projecting  moulding,  which  in 
that  situation  is  called  an  astragal.  The  greatest  change  is 
the  addition  of  a base  to  the  column.  The  base  best  adapted 
to  the  Order,  as  being  the  most  simple,  though  not  uni- 
formly made  use  of,  is  that  which  consists  merely  of  a torus, 
or  large  circular  and  convex-sided  block,  and  two  shallow 
fillets  above  it.  It  may  here  further  be  noticed,  that  beside 
the  base  itself,  or  the  base  proper,  the  moderns  have,  for  all 
the  Orders  alike,  adapted  an  additional  member,  namely, 
a rather  deep  and  square  block,  which,  when  so  applied,  is 
termed  a plinth  ; and  beneath  this  is  frequently  placed  another 
and  deeper  one  called  a sub-plinth. 

Though  greatly  altered,  not  to  say  corrupted,  from  its 
primitive  character,  the  Doric  Order,  as  treated  by  the 
moderns,  has  been  assimilated  to  the  other  Orders, — so  much 
so  as,  though  still  differing  from  them  in  details,  to  belong 
to  the  same  general  style.  One  advantage,  if  no  other,  of 
which  is,  that  it  may,  should  occasion  require,  be  used  along 
with  the  other  Orders  ; whereas  the  original  Doric  is  so  ob- 
stinately inflexible  that  it  cannot  be  made  to  combine  with 
anything  else,  or  to  bend  to  modern  purposes. 


24 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


TUSCAN  ORDER. 


Gavetto . 


This  Order  is  derived 
froDi  the  Doric.  No  au- 
thentic examples  of  it  exist;  it 
is  known  only  from  what  Vi- 
truvius says  of  it,  following 
whose  account,  modern  archi- 
tects have  endeavored,  not 
fruitlessly,  to  make  some  thing 
out  of  it.  The  shafts  are  not 
fluted  and  the  frieze  is  quite 
plain.  The  Tuscan  Order  has 
been  differently  treated  by  dif- 
ferent Architects,  some  of  them 
having  given  it  what  is  merely 
a modification  of  the  Doric  cor- 
nice/without its  mutales.  One 
thing  which  the  moderns  have 
done,  both  in  their  Doric  and 
their  Tuscan,  is  to  assimilate 
pilasters  to  columns,  giving  to 
the  former  precisely  the  same 
bases  and  capitals  as  the  others 
have,  and  also  generally  dimin- 
ishing their  shafts  in  the  same 
manner.  The  proportions  usu- 
ally adopted  for  this  order  are 
as  follows: — the  height  of  the 
column  seven  diameters;  that 
is,  considering  the  order  as  a 
kind  of  Doric,  fourteen  modu- 
les; and  the  entablature,  three 
modules  and  a half.  The  entab- 
lature may  then  be  divided 


Corona 


Astragal. 


\ 

7 

1 

[ 

• c 

Torus . 
Plinth. 


into  ten  equal  parts,  three  of  which  are  to  be  appropriated 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


25 


for  the  height  of  the  architrave, . three  for  the  frieze,  and 
the  remaining  four  for  the  cornice.  The  capital  of  the  co- 
lumn has  the  height  of  one  module,  and  the  base  has  the 
same;,  so  that  the  height  of  the  shaft,  including  the  ring 
or  fillet,  which  separates  the  shaft  and  capital,  must  be 
twelve  modules. 


2 


26 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


IONIC  ORDER. 

The  capital  is  the  indical 
mark  of  the  Order, — that  by 
which  the  eye  immediately  re- 
cognizes and  distinguishes  it. 

The  entire  column  is  of  quite 
a different  character  from  the 
Doric.  Besides  having  the 
addition  of  a base,  the  shaft  is 
of  more  slender  or  taller  pro- 
proportions, and  consequent- 
ly much  less  visibly  taper- 
ing ; for  if  it  diminishes  in  the 
same  degree  as  the  Doric  shaft 
does, — the  Ionic  being  about 
two  diameters  longer, — the 
upper  one  would,  in  conse- 
quence of  such  tapering,  be- 
come too  small  ; and  a further 
consequence  would  be  that  the 
foot  and  base  of  the  column 
would  appear  too  large, — per- 
haps clumsily  so.  It  must  be 
allowed  that  the  swelling  con- 
tours of  the  base  are  admirably 
in  keeping,  and  harmonize 
with  the  play  of  curves  in  the 
volutes  much  better  than  it 
would  were  the  shaft  to  stand 
immediately  upon  the  floor  or 
pavement  without  any  base,  as 
in  the  Doric  Order. 

Concerning  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  development  of 
this  order  to  perfection,  our 
present  lipiits  will  not  permit  us  to  speak.  The  number  of 


Capital  Architrave  Frieze  Cornice 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


27 


fillets  is  twenty-four.  The  Ionic  capital  is  far  more  irregular 
and  complex  than  that  of  the  Doric. 

Instead  of  showing,  like  the  other,  four  equal  sides, 
it  exhibits  two  faces  or  fronts  parallel  to  the  architrave 
above  it,  and  two  narrower  baluster  sides,  as  they  are 
termed,  beneath  the  architrave.  Some  consider  this 
irregularity  a defect,  which,  if  such  it  be,  is  to  be  got  over 
only  by  either  turning  the  volutes  diagonally,  as  in  some 
Roman  and  modern  examples,  or  by  curving  concavely  the 
faces  of  the  capital,  instead  of  making  them  planes,  so  as  to 
obtain  four  equal  faces  or  sides,  as  is  done  in  the  capitals  of 
the  inner  Order  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae.  At 
least  that  method  and  the  other  one  of  turning  the  volutes 
diagonally,  are  the  only  methods  that  have  been  practised 
for  giving  perfect  regularity  to  the  Ionic  capital  by  means  of 
four  equal  faces  ; for,  though  difficult,  it  is  possible  to 
accomplish  the  same  purpose  differently,  by  making  the  aba- 
cus quite  square,  as  in  the  Doric  Order,  and  letting  the 
volutes  grow  out  of  it  on  each  side  or  face,  their  curvature 
commencing  not  at  the  upper  horizontal  edge,  but  descend- 
ing from  the  vertical  edges  of  the  abacus.  The  capitals 
could  not  be  square  without  appearing  of  excessive  bulk, 
and  out  of  proportion  with  the  other  parts,  and  inconsistent 
with  the  delicacy  aimed  at  in  all  respects.  This  arises  from 
the  great  extent  of  the  two  flat  voluted  faces.  It  is  objected 
against  the  Ionic  capital  that  in  the  end  columns  of  a portico 
the  form  occasioned  obvious,  if  not  offensive  irregularity, 
because  on  the  return  side  of  the  building  the  baluster  side 
showed  itself  beneath  the  face  of  the  architrave : yet  even 
this  was  of  little  consequence  if  there  was  merely  a single 
row  of  columns  in  front ; but  where  the  colonade  was  con- 
tinued along  the  flanks  of  the  building  also,  a very  unsightly 
sort  of  irregularity  was  produced ; for  while  all  the  other 
columns  on  those  flanks  showed  the  faces  of  their  capitals, 
the  end  one  would  show  its  baluster  side.  To  obviate  this 
objection  the  volute  was  placed  at  the  angle,  diaganolly, 


28 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


& a 


so  as  to  obtain  these  two  voluted  surfaces  placed  immediately 
back  to  back.  In  the  British  Museum  and  some  other 
modern  edifices  this  objection  is  attempted  to  be  obviated  by 
arranging  the  corner  volutes  as  shown  in  Figs.  4 and  5,  in 
which  / indicates  the  face  or  voluted  side 
of  the  capital,  and  b the  baluster  side.  In 
an  external  angle,  or  the  return  of  a por- 
tico, the  faces  and  sides  are  arranged  thus, 
so  that  b b b b come  opposite  each  other; 
but  in  an  internal  or  re-entering  angle, 
the  reverse  takes  place  ; for  we  have  then 
this  disposition  of  the  faces  and  sides  of  the  capitals,  in 
which  a voluted  face  comes  opposite  to  the  baluster  side  of 
the  next  capital, — a most  unsightly  irregularity,  and  an 
objection  that  would  be  far  better  got  over  i- — ? ^ 


O 


by  making  the  column  [a ] into  a square 
pillar,  which  would  besides  give  strength, 
or  the  expression  of  it,  where  such  expres-  .j. 
sion  is  very  desirable.  The  capital  some- 
times has  and  sometimes  has  not  a necking 
to  it,  which  may  be  either  plain  or  decorated.  The  capital 
is  capable  of  infinite  modifications  in  its  proportion  to  the 
column,  and  as  regards  the  size  of  the  volutes  compared 
with  the  width  of  the  face.  In  the  best  Greek  examples 
the  volutes  are  much  bolder  and  larger  than  in  those  of  the 
Roman  and  Italian,  in  some  of  which  they  are  so  greatly 
reduced  in  size,  and  become  consequently  so  far  apart  from 
each  other,  as  to  be  insignificant  in  themselves,  and  give  the 
whole  capital  an  expression  of  meanness  and  meagreness. 
The  spirals  forming  the  volute  supply  another  source  of 
variety,  since  they  may  be  either  single  or  manifold.  In 
what  is  called  the  Ilissus  Ionic  capital  there  is  only  a single 
spiral,  or  hem,  whose  revolutions  form  the  volute,  which 
mode,  indeed,  prevails  in  all  the  Roman  and  modern  Ionics; 
but  in  the  capitals  of  the  Temple  of  Erecthus,  at  Athens, 
there  are,  besides  that  principal  spiral,  either  intermediate 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


29 


ones  which  follow  the  course  of  its  revolutions.  Again,  the 
cathetus , or  eye  of  the  volute,  where  the  spiral  or  spirals  ter- 
minate, admits  of  being  made  smaller  or  larger.  It  is, 
besides,  sometimes  flat,  sometimes  convex,  and  occasionally 
carved  as  a rosette.  All  these  variations  are  independent  of 
the  general  composition  of  the  capital,  and  though  not  all 
equally  good,  they  both  suggest  and  authorize  other  modifi- 
cations of  the  Ionic  type,  and  fresh  combinations. 


Fig.  6 shows  the  internal  order  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo 
at  Bassae.  It  has  four  similar  faces;  yet  if  it  so  far  agrees 


30 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


with  many  Roman  and  Modern  Ionic  capitals,  it  differs  from 
them  totally  in  every  other  respect.  The  base  is  peculiar  on 
account  of  its  great  simplicity  and  its  expansion,  spreading 
out  below  to  considerable  more  than  the  upper  diameters  of 
the  shaft.  This  differs  from  the  proper  Ionic  base,  which 
is  greatly  contracted  in  its  lower  moulding.  Another  pecu- 
liarity of  the  Temple  at  Bassae  is  the  mode  in  which  the 
shafts  are  fluted  ; the  fillets  are  exceedingly  narrow,  and  the 
channels  shallow  and  very  slightly  curved,  which  gives  the 
shaft  altogether  a different  character  from  that  attending 
the  usual  mode  of  fluting  practiced  for  this  Order.  In 
G reek  examples  the  baluster  side  of  the  column  had  a series 
of  wide  channels  with  broad  fillets  between  them,  and  where 
great  richness  was  affected,  as  in  the  Ionic  of  the  Temple  of 
Erechtheus,  at  Athens,  the  fillets  had  an  additional  mould- 
ing upon  them,  carved  into  heads.  In  the  Asiatic  examples, 
on  the  contrary,  and  Roman  ones  also,  the  baluster  side  is 
usually  cut  into  the  form  of  leaves,  bound  together,  as  it 
were,  in  the  centre,  by  a broad  grin. 

The  base  usually  given  to  this  order  by  the  Greeks  was 
the  Attic  one,  consisting  of  two  tori,  divided  by  a scotia. 
The  upper  torus  was  sometimes  fluted  horizontally ; at  others, 
cut  to  resemble  an  interlaced  chain-like  ornament,  now  called 
a guilloche.  Modern  architects,  however,  invariably  leave 
the  upper  torus  of  the  base  quite  plain. 

Ionic  Ant;e. — Without  exactly  agreeing  with  that  of  the 
column,  the  base  does  not  differ  from  it  very  materially,  ex- 
cept, indeed,  in  the  Ilisus  example,  where  it  is  lower  than 
the  other,  and  consists  only  of  a shallow  scotia,  with  a chan- 
neled torus  above  it.  In  the  Erechtheum  example,  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  column-base  chiefly  by  both  the  lower 
and  upper  torus  being  channeled.  The  capital,  or,  as  it  is 
more  commonly  termed,  anta-cap,  on  the  contrary,  is  differ- 
ently shaped  from  that  of  the  column,  in  consequence  of  hav- 
ing no  volutes;  wherefore,  it  is  not  by  any  means  so  wide, 
neither  is  it  so  deep.  The  mouldings,  too,  though  of  the 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


81 


same  character,  are  differently  disposed.  Still,  the  anta-cap 
corresponds  with  the  capital  as  to  plainness  or  enrichment, 
being  either  carved  or  not,  as  those  of  the  latter  happen  to 
be;  and,  if  the  capital  has  an  ornamented  necking,  so  also 
has  the  anta.  One  singularity  in  the  treatment  of  some  an- 
tse  is  that  of  the  face  of  the  anta,  a slight  break  having  been 
made  down  the  middle  of  it,  which  causes  it  to  appear  com- 
posed of  two  very  narrow  faces,  put  together  side  by  side, 
but  not  exactly  flush  with  each  other. 

Ionic  Entablature. — As  expressed  in  the  terms  of  the 
diameter  of  the  column,  that  is,  measured  by  it,  the  entabla- 
ture exceeds  that  of  the  Doric  Order.  In  the  Parthenon, 
the  entire  height  of  the  entablature  is  not  more  than  two 
diameters ; while  in  both  the  Ionic  and  Erechtheum,  it  is  two 
diameters  and  seventeen  parts,  or  two-thirds  of  a diameter 
more;  whereas,  it  would  seem  that  the  Ionic  column,  being 
much  more  slender,  the  entablature  ought  to  be  less  than  two 
diameters  in  height,  instead  of  being  more.  And  so  it  is, 
and  less  in  a considerable  degree:  it  is  the  height  of  the  en- 
tablature; in  other  words,  the  height  of  the  latter  must  be  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  former.  Now,  two  and  one-third 
diameters  for  the  entablature  is  less  in  proportion  to  a column 
eight  or  nine  diameters  high.  In  the  latter  case,  the  entab- 
lature is  equal  to  one-third  of  the  column,  and  one-fourth  of 
the  whole  order;  but  in  the  other  two  and  one-third  diame- 
ters, amount  to  only  a fourth,  or  thereabouts,  of  the  height 
of  the  column,  and,  consequently,  to  only  about  a fifth  of  the 
entire  Order. 

The  Ionic  Archit  ave  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  the  Doric.  Its  average  or  standard  height  is  the  upper 
diameter  of  the  column.  In  the  plainer  examples  of  Ionic, 
such  as  the  Ilissus  one,  the  face  of  the  architrave  is  quite 
plain,  and  distinguished  from  it  only  by  the  Doric  tenia  being 
converted  into  a moulding  of  a plain  bead  and  small  echinus, 
surmounted  by  a narrow  tenia  or  broad  fillet.  In  more  de- 
corated examples,  as  that  of  the  Erechtheum,  the  face  of  the 


32 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


architrave  is  divided  into  three  surfaces  or  courses,  called 
faciae,  which  very  slightly  project  beyond  or  over-hang  each 
other,  and  the  moulding  between  the  architrave  and  frieze  is 
increased  in  depth;  there  is  a greater  number  of  mouldings, 
and  some  of  them  are  enriched  by  being  carved,  or,  as  it  is 
termed,  cut. 

As  to  the  Ionic  frieze,  triglyphs  being  discarded  for  it,  and 
no  other  characteristic  members  substituted  for  them,  it  be- 
comes no  more  than  a plain  surface  interposed  between  the 
architrave  and  cornice,  unless,  as  is  now  never  done,  although 
it  was,  in  all  probability,  generally  done  by  the  Ancients,  it 
is  enriched  with  figures  in  bas-relief,  or  other  sculpture. 

The  Ionic  cornice  affords  but  little  scope  for  further  obser- 
vation, more  particularly  in  the  Athenian  examples,  in  which 
it  consists  of  little  more  than  the  corona  and  cymatium  above 
it,  and  some  narrow  bed-mouldings  beneath  the  former  mem- 
ber, partly  got  out  of  its  hallowed  soffit,  or  under-surface. 

If  the  frieze  is  to  be  left  plain,  the  best  way  would  be  to 
reduce  its  height  a little,  and  perhaps  that  of  the  architrave 
also,  and  enlarge  the  cornice  by  introducing  dentels  into  it. 
These  dentels  consist  of  a series  of  narrow,  upright  blocks 
(supposed  to  represent  the  end  of  joists),  placed  closely 
together;  so  that  the  spaces  between  them,  which  are  only 
about  half  as  wide  as  the  blocks  themselves,  appear  to  indent 
that  portion  of  the  cornice,  which,  when  introduced  without 
being  so  ornamented,  is  called  an  uncut  dentel  band. 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Aizani,  in  Asia  Minor,  exhibits 
a remarkable  example  of  the  Ionic  order,  the  details  of  which 
were  recently  published,  for  the  first  time,  by  M.  Texier.  In 
its  general  conformation,  the  base  resembles  the  Priene 
example;  but  the  entablature  is  quite  different.  The  archi- 
trave is  divided  into  three  facise,  separated  by  a cut  mould- 
ing; and  the  upper  facise  is  surmounted  by  an  exceedingly 
deep  and  highly  enriched  course  of  mouldings.  The  frieze', 
too,  is  placed  upon  it  at  intervals,  somewhat  after  the  manner 
of  the  triglyphs,  and  connected  with  scrolls.  The  comic© 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


33 


has  both  dentels  and  modillions,  and  a narrow  corona,  but 
a deep  cymatium,  enriched  with  carving. 

Notwithstanding  the  superiority  of  the  Greek  Ionic  to  the 
Roman,  it  has  not  been  adopted  by  the  French  and  Italian 
architects  of  the  present  day.  In  England,  the  Greek  Ionic 
has  been  employed  almost  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  the 
other. 


ROMAN  AND  MODERN  IONIC. 

As  treated  by  the  Romans,  the  Ionic  capital  was  not  only 
greatly  impoverished,  but  deformed  also, — impoverished  by 
the  volutes  being  greatly  reduced  in  size,  and  consequently 
in  importance  also,  as  characteristic  marks  of  the  order, — • 
and  deformed  owing  to  the  tasteless  treatment  of  it  in  other 
respects.  Instead  of  the  gracefully-flowing  festoon-hem , or 
mouldings  over  the  echinus,  which  seems  to  connect  the  two 
volutes,  or  sides  of  the  face  of  the  capital  together,  there  is 
a straight  line  without  any  moulding  to  it;  and  the  echinus, 
projecting  before  it,  produces  an  appearance  of  clumsiness — 
of  the  several  members  not  being  properly  adjusted  to  each 
other.  As  in  all  the  Greek  examples,  the  echinus  of  the 
capital,  which  passes  behind  the  volutes,  is  invariably  carved 
with  that  sort  of  pattern  which  workmen  call  “ eggs  and 
darts v — ova,  or  egg-shaped  ornaments,  almost  naturally 
resulting  from  the  contour  of  the  moulding  before  it  is  cut; 
and  the  echinus  of  the  Ionic,  being  always  so  carved,  is  on 
that  account  distinguished  by  the  name  ovolo — not  because 
its  section,  or  profile,  is  any  portion  of  an  oval  or  elliptic 
curve;  for,  among  other  things  the  Roman  style  differs  from 
the  Greek  in  having  all  its  mouldings,  both  convex  and  con- 
cave, formed  of  portions  of  circles,  by  which  its  details 
become  less  elegant  in  contour. 

There  are  but  three  accredited  examples  of  the  Roman 
Ionic  Order  as  a whole,  viz: — the  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  the 
Temple  of  Fortuna  Yirilis,  and  the  Temple  of  Concord.  Of 


34 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


the  first  of  these,  the  capital  is  the  simplest  and  plainest,  and 
also  the  smallest  in  its  proportions  ; that  of  the  second  is  by 
far  the  best,  its  volutes  retaining  most  of  the  Greek  charac- 
ter ; and  that  of  the  third  is  remarkable,  if  not  for  its  ugli- 
ness in  other  respects,  for  its  volutes  being  turned  outwards 
diagonally,  so  as  to  present  four  equal  spaces, — a mode  af- 
terwards re-invented  and  brought  up  as  a novelty,  by  Sca- 
mozzi,  in  honor  of  whom  it  has  since  been  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  the  Scamozzi  capital.  There  are  in  addition  to 
these  three  examples  numerous  detached  specimens  of  the 
Order  in  antique,  concerning  which  our  limits  will  not  permit 
us  to  speak.  The  only  other  variety  of,  or  invention  for,  the 
Ionic  capital  that  we  can  notice  is  one  that  has  been  prac- 
ticed by  Italian  Architects,  and  which  may  be  distinguished 
as  the  festoon  or  festooned  capital,  the  volutes  being  turned 
diagonally,  and  a festoon  being  suspended  from  the  eye  of  one 
volute  to  that  of  the  other  beneath  each  face.  This  not  only 
gives  variety  and  richness  to  the  capital,  but  by  increasing 
its  volume  or  bulk,  increases  its  importance  also,  and  produces 
great  play  of  light  and  shade;  there  is  harmony  together 
with  diversity  in  the  combination  of  forms,  the  curve  of  the 
festoon  being,  though  dissimilar,  in  agreement  with  the  out- 
line of  the  volutes.  At  present  there  is  no  proportion  ob- 
served— that  is  with  regard  to  decoration;  for  the  same 
entablature  or  cornice  at  least  is  not  equally  adapted  to  large 
and  small  capitals.  To  obviate  the  meagreness  and  insig- 
nificance of  the  usual  Italian  Ionic  capital,  Sangovino  and 
some  others  have  frequently  given  it  a necking,  either  plain 
or  enriched,  which  even  when  plain,  greatly  improves  the 
general  appearance  of  the  column  by  increasing  the  depth  of 
the  capital  and  reducing  the  height  of  the  shaft.  To  make 
this  clearer,  without  pretending  at  all  to  exactness,  call  the 
column  nine  diameters  high,  and  the  capital  either  half  a 
diameter,  or  a whole  one,  accordingly  as  it  is  with  or  without 
a necking;  now,  in  the  first  case,  the  capital  will  be  to  the 
shaft  (base  included)  only  as  one  to  seventeen,  whereas  in  the 


OF  ARCHITECTURE, 


35 


other  It  becomes  as  one  to  eight,  which  is  not  at  all  too 
much,  while  the  other  way  the  shaft  is  much  too  lanky,  and 
the  capital  too  low, — -as  is  probably  felt  by  those  who  cannot 
explain  the  cause  of  such  disagreement  and  disproportion. 

Entablature. — The  Theatre  of  Marcellus  seems  to  have 
been  the  entablature  which  has  guided  the  Moderns  in  the 
composition  of  their  entablature,  although  they  have  greatly 
diminished  the  proportions  of  the  cornice,  which  is  there 
nearly  equal  to  both  architrave  and  frieze  together.  In  the 
Athenian  Ionic  we  may  set  down  the  architrave,  frieze,  and 
cornice  as  about  50 — 50,  and  35  minutes  respectively,  making 
altogether  two  diameters  and  fifteen  minutes  (2J  diameters) ; 
therefore  the  cornice  is  to  each  of  the  other  two  divisions  of 
the  entablature  only  as  35  to  50.  In  the  Roman  Ionic,  on 
the  contrary,  the  cornice  is  by  much  the  largest  division;  in 
the  Fortuna  Yirilis  example,  the  measures  are — architrave 
38',  frieze  19',  cornice  10';  in  that  of  the  Theatre  of  Mar- 
cellus 43' — 36' — 66',  making  the  entire  entablature  121',  or 
2 diameters  1 minutes.  Although  modern  Architects  vary 
from  these  proportions,  and  some  of  them  make  the  frieze 
equal  to,  or  more  than  the  architrave,  they  all  agree — in 
doctrine,  at  least,  if  not  in  practice — in  making  the  cornice 
the  largest  division  of  the  entablature.  Either  dentels  or 
larger  plain  blocks,  placed  rather  wide  apart  from  each  other, 
are  considered  the  proper  characteristic  marks  of  the  Ionic 
cornice. 

The  moderns  have  frequently  given  this  Order,  by  way  of 
distinction,  a convex  frieze,  technically  termed  a pulvinated 
one,  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  a cushion  ( pwlvinar ), 
whose  slides  swell  out  by  compression  when  sat  upon. 


80 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


CORINTHIAbf  ORDERCymatium.  % 

The  distinguishing  feat- 
ure of  this  Order  is  its 
deep  and  foliaged  capital. 

The  story  usually  related 
of  the  origin  of  the 
Corinthian  capital  is ; 
the  sculptor  Callicrates 
was  so  struck  by  the 
graceful  forms  into  which 
the  leaves  of  the  acanthus 
plant  had  grown  up  around  a 
tall  basked  covered  by  a square 
slab,  that  he  sketched  it,  and 
conceived  the  idea  of  fashioning 
the  capital  after  it.  The  fact 
is,  the  Corinthian  Order  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  ever 
matured  into  a distinct  style 
and  complete  system  by  the 
Greeks.  There  is,  indeed,  one 
solitary  Athenian  example  of 
Corinthian,  which  exhibits  the 
utmost  refinement  of  exquisite 
richness  attempered  by  exquisite 
delicacy.  In  the  Lysicrates 
capital — as  we  will  for  conve- 
nience call  it  (the  example 
alluded  to  being  that  of  the 
monument  of  Lysicrates,  other- 
wise called  the  Lantern  of 
Demosthenes,  at  Athens) — 
foliation  may  be  said  to  have 
attained  its  culminating  point; 
rivalled,  it  may  be,  but  hardly 
surpassed.  Still,  it  must  ^3  confessed*  as  a whole,  that 


Torus 

Scotia. 

Torus. 

Plinth. 


shaft.  Capital,  Architrave,  Cornice, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


37 


Order  leaves  much  to  be  desired  for  it,  there  being  nothing 
of  corresponding  beauty  and  luxuriance  in  the  rest  of  it. 
The  cornice,  for  instance,  is  only  a simple  dentelled  Ionic 
one;  nor  are  any  of  the  mouldings  of  the  entablature  cut. 
There  was,  however,  in  that  particular  case,  above  the 
entablature,  what  fully  counterbalances  and  carries  out  the 
idea  and  expression  of  the  capitals,  namely,  the  ornamental 
roofing,  and  the  matchless  finial  which  crowns  the  structure, 
and  produces  a full  climax  of  beauty  and  grace.  Charming 
as  the  original  itself  is,  or,  more  correctly,  was , it  has  been 
copied  and  altered  more  than  any  other  structure — often  in 
a bungling  manner. 

The  ^Corinthian  Order  may  be  thus  described:  the  body 
of  the  capital  is  surrounded  by  two  rows  of  leaves,  eight  in 
each  row;  besides  which,  there  are  four  leaves,  which,  with 
the  volutes  over  them,  serve  to  support  the  four  angles  of 
the  abacus.  Although  the  Order  itself  is  the  most  delicate 
and  lightest  of  the  three,  the  capital  is  the  largest,  being 
considerably  more  than  a diameter  in  height, — upon  the 
average  about  a diameter  and  a quarter.  This,  however, 
will  cause  the  reader  no  surprise,  if  he  bears  in  mind  what 
has  before  been  said  as  to  the  proportion  to  be  observed 
between  the  column  and  its  capital.  The  taller  the  former  is, 
the  taller  must  the  latter  be  also,  and  so,  far  bulkier;  although, 
while  actually  increasing  in  bulk,  its  tallness  corrects  the 
appearance  of  heaviness,  by  giving  the  proportion  of  slender- 
ness. A capital  whose  height  is  only  half  a diameter,  is, 
of  course,  by  no  means  positively  so  bulky  as  one  which  is 
upwards  of  an  entire  diameter  in  height, — whereas  the  other 
is  much  higher  than  it  is  wide.  The  abacus  is  differently 
shaped  from  what  it  is  in  either  of  the  other  four  Orders. 
In  the  Doric  it  is,  as  we  have  seen,  merely  a thick,  square 
slab,  fitting  the  echinus  beneath  it,  and  left  perfectly  plain. 
In  the  Ionic,  it  is  square;  but  its  sides  are  moulded,  whether 
it  is  square  or  not.  The  Corinthian  abacus,  on  the  contrary,  is 
not,  properly  speaking,  a square;  although  it  may  be  said  to 


38 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


be  so  in  its  general  form,  inasmuch  as  it  possesses  squareness , 
having  four  equal  sides.  Instead  of  being  straight,  the  sides 
of  the  abacus  are  concave  in  plan,  being  curved  outwards, 
so  as  to  produce  a sharp  point  at  each  corner,  which  is 
accordingly  cut  off.  Thus  we  find  that  the  abacus  here 
assumes  a very  different  shape  from  its  original  one.  The 
height  of  the  capital  varies  from  60'  to  nearly  half  as  much 
again. 

The  proper  Corinthian  base  differs  from  that  of  the  usual 
Ionic  or  Attic,  in  having  no  smaller  scotise,  separated  by  two 
astragals ; however,  both  kinds  are  employed  indiscriminately, 
and  the  Attic  is  that  which  is  generally  used,  except  a greater 
degree  of  delicacy  and  richness  than  ordinary  be  required. 
As  the  shaft  is  fluted  similarly  to  that  of  the  Ionic  column, 
viz.,  with  twenty-four  channels,  there  is  nothing  for  notice  or 
remark  there,  unless  it  be  that  the  flutes  are  sometimes 
called , as  it  is  called,  that  is,  the  channels  are  hollowed  out 
for  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft,  and 
the  remainder  cut,  so  that  each  channel  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  partly  filled  up  by  a round  staff,  or  piece  of 
rope,  whence  the  term  calling. 

Entablature. — The  architrave  is  generally  divided  into 
three  facise  (the  lower  one  much  narrower  than  the  others, 
which  is  rather  contrary  to  architectonic  principle,  the  weaker 
member  being  placed  under  heavier  ones),  with  the  mouldings 
between  them,  which,  though  frequently  left  plain,  are  prop- 
erly enriched  in  the  best  and  most  consistently  finished-up 
examples.  We  pass  over  the  frieze,  that  being  merely  a sin- 
gle surface,  either  plain  or  sculptured.  The  cornice  is  larger 
than  in  the  other  Orders,  larger  as  to  height,  and,  conse- 
quently, as  to  projection  also;  which  increased  height  and 
projection,  and,  we  may  add,  increased  richness,  are  demanded 
by  the  greatly  enlarged  bulk  of  the  capital,  and  its  more  ela- 
borate decoration.  Examples  vary  so  greatly,  that  we  can 
give  only  approximating  mean  and  average  proportions, 
which  may  be  set  down  at  2 diameters  12  minutes  for  the 


OP  ARCHITECTURE, 


39 


whole  entablature,  and  54',  or  something  less  than  a diame- 
ter, for  the  cornice;  but  it  is  in  many  instances  more,  and, 
in  others,  as  much  less.  As  may  be  supposed  from  this 
greatly-increased  depth  of  the  cornice,  it  consists  of  a greater 
number  of  mouldings  beneath  the  corona,  for  that  and  the 
cymatium  over  it  invariably  retain  their  places  as  the  crown- 
ing members  of  the  whole  series  of  mouldings.  To  the  den- 
tels  of  the  Ionic  cornice  is  added  a row  of  modillions,  imme- 
diately beneath  and  supporting  the  corona.  These  modil- 
lions are  ornamented  blocks,  curved  in  their  under  surface, 
after  the  manner  of  the  letter  S turned  thus,  ui\  and  between 
them  and  the  dentels,  and  also  below  the  latter,  are  other 
mouldings  sometimes  cut,  at  others,  left  plain.  Sometimes  a 
plain,  uncut  dentel-band  is  substituted  for  dentels ; sometimes, 
in  simpler  cornices,  that  is  omitted  altogether,  and  plainer 
blocks  are  employed  instead  of  modillions;  or  else  both  den- 
tels and  modillions  are  omitted,  as  in  the  Temple  of  Antonius 
and  Faustina,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  considerably  enriched 
— even  the  face  of  the  corona  being  fluted. 


40 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


COMPOSITE  ORDER 
This  Order  is  Dot  con- 
sidered by  some  modern 
writers  as  an  Order.  The  vo- 
lutes at  the  angles  of  the  capi- 
tal are  expanded  into  the  pro- 
portions of  those  in  the  Roman 
Ionic  capital.  The  Order  is 
without  doubt  derived  from  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian;  it  was 
first  used  by  the  Romans  in 
their  triumphal  arches.  The 
very  dissimilar  varieties  to  be- 
met  with,  all  belonging  to  one' 
and  the  same  Order,  show 
plainly  enough  that  the  Archi- 
tects of  antiquity  considered 
themselves  at  liberty  to  design 
their  own  detail,  and  to  treat 
an  Order  as  a composition 
marked  out  for  them  in  its 
leading  forms  and  general  pro- 
portions, but  which  they  might 
fashion  nearly  ad  libitum  in 
other  respects.  Modern  archi- 
tects are  more  apt  to  study 
mere  convenience,  and  violate 
architectural  orthodoxy.  Such 
architecture  may  not  be  strictly 
classical;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  hence  they  are  not  artistic 
or  beautiful.  If  our  limits  would 
permit,  we  could  instance  hun- 
dreds of  examples  of  this  Order, 
each  of  which  might  be  some- 
what different  from  the  other 


Cymatium 

Modillions. 

Dentals. 
Frieze. 


Architrave, 


Volutes. 

Upper  \ 
leaves,  j 
Lower  > 
leaves.  J 


and  perhaps  it  might  lead 


Shaft.  Capital. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


41 


the  reader  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  Composite  should  be 
considered  not  as  a separate  Order,  but  as  a modification 
of  the  Corinthian. 


COLUMNIATION. 

Columns  and  entablatures,  in  themselves,  do  not,  properly 
speaking,  constitute  an  Order,  although  they  serve  as  speci- 
mens of  it.  They  must  enter  into,  and  regulate  the  organiza- 
tion of  a structure,  before  they  can  become,  by  composition, 
what  is  strictly  termed  an  Order.  As  exhibited  in  their 
temples,  the  system  of  columniation  practised  by  the  ancients 
was  strictly  organic  and  natural.  Instead  of  being  something 
accessory,  supplementary  to,  and  independent  of,  the  fabric, 
that  might  be  either  omitted  or  applied  at  pleasure,  as 
commonly  practised  in  Italian  and  modern  composition,  the 
Order  itself  constituted  the  exterior  of  the  building,  at  least 
of  that  side  or  front  of  it  where  it  was  introduced,  when  it 
was  not  continued  throughout;  so  that  the  Order  and  its 
dimensions,  once  established,  and  the  mode  of  inter-columnia- 
tion  determined,  the  edifice  shaped  itself.  Before  we  enter 
upon  the  subject  of  inter-columniation,  it  will  be  desirable  to 
explain  the  various  forms  of  temples,  and  the  technical  terms 
by  which  they  are  distinguished. 

The  naos,  or  cella,  as  it  is  more  usually  called,  or  temple 
itself,  was  comparatively  small,  even  where  the  entire  mass 
was  of  considerable  size,  gradual  extension  of  size  being 
produced  not  so  much  by  any  great  enlargement  of  the  in- 
terior as  by  external  columniation  and  its  gradual  develop- 
ment. It  is  probable  that  the  earliest  Greek  temples  con- 
sisted of  the  naos  only,  and  were  accordingly  plain  Astylar 
buildings,  or  without  columns,  except  in  front  or  at  the 
entrance  end,  where  an  enclosed  porch  was  formed  by  intro- 
ducing columns,  by  continuing  the  side  walls,  and  placing 
columns  between  them  in  antis,  that  is,  between  the  two 
antae  or  pilasters  forming  the  ends  of  those  walls.  The  next 
step  seems  to  have  been  to  advance  the  porch  before  the 


42 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


main  building,  instead  of*  keeping  it  recessed  within  the  side 
walls,  thereby  converting  in  form  a portico  in  antis  into  a 
prostyle,  or  projecting  line  of  columns;  thus  a distyle  in  antis, 
or  a portico  consisting  of  two  columns  between  antae,  con- 
sequently of  three  intercolumns,  or  open  spaces  between  the 
antae  and  columns,  would  become  a tetrastyle,  or  projecting 
portico  of  four  columns.  By  the  other  end  of  the  building 
being  similarly  treated,  the  temple  became  amphiprostyle,  or 
prostyle  at  both  ends,  in  rear  as  well  as  in  front,  the  sides 
still  remaining  astylar.  The  next  and  last  style  of  advance- 
ment was  to  continue  columniation  all  round,  enclosing  the 
cella  within  colonnades  along  its  sides  as  well  as  at  its  ends, 
which  disposition  of  plan  is  expressed  by  the  terms  peristyle 
or  peristylar,  and  peripteral,  which  of  necessity  produces  two 
columns  and  two  intercolumns  more  in  front ; for  what  would 
otherwise  be  merely  a tetrastyle  prostyle,  with  four  columns 
and  three  intercolumns,  (the  number  of  the  latter  being 
always  one  less  than  of  the  others,)  becomes  by  the  colon- 
nades being  continued  along  the  side,  a hexastyle  (six 
columns  and  five  intercolumns) ; or  if  originally  a prostyle 
hexastyle,  it  would  be  rendered  an  octastyle , (eight  columns 
and  seven  intercolumns,)  and  so  on.  It  should  be  observed, 
too,  that  a building  cannot  at  the  same  time  be  peristylar 
and  have  a prostyle  portico,  the  latter  being  merged  in  the 
general  columniation,  instead  of  projecting  from  the  rest  of 
the  edifice  as  a distinct  feature.  Of  peristylar  temples  there 
were  two  sorts,  viz.  : those  with  a single  row  of  columns  on 
each  side,  and  those  which  have  two,  which  last  are  distin- 
guished by  the  term  dipteral,  i.  e.  having  two  wings  or  aisles 
on  each  side.  Although  it  did  not  at  all  affect  the  general 
appearance,  notwithstanding  that  it  extended  the  plan  by 
adding  two  more  columns  and  intercolumns  to  the  front,  this 
last-mentioned  mode  was  attended  with  greater  richness  of 
columniation,  and  the  intercolumns  contributed  not  a little 
to  variety  of  effect  and  play  of  perspective;  besides  which, 
greater  sheltered  space  was  gained  for  ambulatories;  whereas 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


43 


in  the  usual  simple  peristyle,  where  the  space  between  the 
outer  columns  and  the  walls  of  the  cella  was  limited  to  the 
width  of  a single  intercolumn,  the  side  colonnades  were  mere 
narrow  passages,-  very  little  wider — at  least  in  Doric  tem- 
ples— than  the  diameter  of  the  columns  themselves,  conse- 
quently of  very  little  actual  service.  In  what  is  called  the 
jpseudo-dipteral  mode,  more  of  clear  space  between  the  colon- 
nades was  provided  by  omitting  the  inner  columns,  which 
mode  reduced  the  plan  to  that  of  simple  peristyle,  the  only 
difference  being,  that  instead  of  the  width  of  a single  inter- 
column, a clear  space,  equal  to  two  intercolumns  and  one 
column,  was  gained  for  the  ambulatories.  The  Temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Silenus  was  of  this  description,  and  being  only 
octastyle  in  front,— the  least  possible  width  for  a dipteral  or 
pseudo-dipteral  plan, — of  the  seven  front  intercolumns,  for 
four  (■ i . e.,  two  on  each  side)  were  given  to  the  lateral  colon- 
nades, and  only  three  left  for  the  breadth  of  the  czlla , which 
must  have  looked  like  a smaller  edifice  standing  within  a 
colonnaded  and  covered  enclosure. 

The  above  few  and  simple  arrangements  of  plan  are  nearly 
all  the  varieties  that  the  G reek  temple  style  offers ; and  some 
of  them  are  little  better  than  distinctions  without  differences, 
inasmuch  as  the  differences  do  not  affect  general  external 
appearance.  Peripteral,  dipteral  and  pseudo-dipteral,  all 
agree  in  the  main  point,  and  the  two  latter  answer  to  the 
name  of  peripteral  as  well  as  to  the  first,  being  merely  modi- 
fications of  it.  Great  as  were  its  aesthetic  beauties,  Greek 
Architecture  was — why  should  we  scruple  to  confess  it? — 
exceedingly  limited  in  its  compass  and  power  of  expression: 
what  it  did,  it  did  admirably,  but  it  confined  itself  too  much 
to  one  idea.  “ When  you  have  seen  one  green  field,”  says 
Johnson,  “you  have  seen  all  green  fields;”  and  so  we  may 
say  of  Greek  temples, — when  you  have  seen  one  of  them, 
you  have  seen  all  of  them.  However  they  may  differ  from 
one  another  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  Order  adopted  for 
them,  the  number  of  their  columns  and  mere  particulars  of 


44 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


that  kind,  they  resemble  each  other  very  nearly  in  all  lead- 
ing points.  Not  only  were  their  plans  invariably  parallelo- 
grams, but  alike  also  to  proportion,  forming  a double  square, 
or  being  about  twice  as  much  in  length  as  in  breadth ; for  so 
exceedingly  methodical  was  the  Greek  system,  that  the  num- 
bers of  columns  on  the  flanks  or  sides  of  a peripteral  temple 
was  regulated  and  determined  by  the  number  of  those  in 
front.  The  number  of  those  in  front  was  invariably  an  even 
one,  as  otherwise  there  would  be  no  middle  intercolumn ; but 
on  the  flanks  of  the  edifice,  where  there  was  no  entrance, 
the  number  of  the  intercolumns  was  an  even,  and  that  o,. 
the  columns  an  uneven  one,  so  that  a column  came  in  the  cen- 
tre of  these  side  elevations. 

As  to  the  mode  in  which  the  front  influenced  the  sides  by 
determining  the  number  of  columns  for  them,  the  established 
rule  seems  to  have  been  to  give  the  flanks  twice  as  many  inter- 
columns as  there  were  columns  at  each  end:  thus,  the  Parthe- 
non, which  is  octastyle,  has  sixteen  intercolumns;  consequently, 
seventeen  columns  on  each  flank.  In  like  manner,  a hexa- 
style  temple  would  have  twelve  intercolumns,  and  thirteen 
columns  on  its  sides.  There  are,  however,  exceptions;  for 
instance,  the  temple  at  Selinus,  which  has  been  mentioned  as 
an  instance  of  the  pseudo-dipteral  mode  of  columniation  in  an 
octastyle,  with  sixteen,  or  just  twice  as  many  columns  on  its 
sides  as  in  front;  consequently,  the  intercolumns  are  only  fif- 
teen, and  being  uneven  in  number,  there  is  a middle  one,  as 
in  the  front  itself.  After  all,  the  difference  caused  by  there 
being  an  intercolumn  more  or  legs  than  usual,  is  but  a very 
slight  one,  such  as  is  to  be  ascertained  only  by  counting  the 
columns,  and  such  as  not  to  cause  any  perceptible  difference 
in  the  general  physiognomy  of  building. 

Besides  the  restriction  as  to  general  proportion  of  plan, 
namely,  the  fixed  relationship  between  the  length  and  the 
breadth  of  the  building,  proportion  with  regard  to  height 
was  limited  in  a different  way,  and  in  such  manner  that 
the  character  of  increased  richness  and  importance  derived 


OP  ARCHITECTURE 


45 


from  a greater  number  of  columns  was  attended  not,  indeed, 
by  decreased  height,  but  by  decreased  lofti'/iess , or  proportional 
height,  that  is,  height  as  measured  by  either  breadth  or 
length.  Paradoxical  as  this  may  sound  at  first,  nothing  can 
be  more  plain  when  once  explained.  Discarding  nicety  in 
measurement,  we  will  call  a tetrastyle  portico  about  a square 
in  height — that  is,  about  as  high  as  wide ; but  add  four  more 
columns,  extend  it  from  a tetrastyle  to  an  octastyle,  so  that 
it  becomes  about  a double  square  in  breadth,  or  twice  as 
wide  again,  and  the  inevitable  consequence  is,  that  it  is  then 
only  twice  as  wide  as  high;  that  is,  as  to  proportion,  only 
half  as  lofty  as  it  was  before.  The  expression  of  loftiness,  in 
which  altitude  greatly  predominates  over  breadth,  was  quite 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  Greek  system.  Their  temples  might 
be  planted  on  lofty  eminences,  but  the  structures  themselves 
never  towered  upwards.  As  far  as  it  went,  their  system 
was  perfect — so  complete,  indeed,  in  itself  as  to  be  unfit  for 
almost  any  other  purposes  than  that  for  which  it  was  ex- 
pressly framed. 

If  the  Romans  corrupted  the  Doric  and  Ionic,  they  devel- 
oped and  matured  the  Corinthian  Order,  and  also  worked 
out  a freer  and  more  complex  and  comprehensive  system  of 
Architecture.  To  say  nothing  of  their  introduction  and  ap- 
plication of  those  important  elements  of  both  construction 
and  design,  the  arch  and  vault,  which  hardly  belong  to  a 
mere  treatise  on  the  Orders,  it  is  to  the  Romans  that  we  are 
indebted  for  varieties  and  combinations  of  plan  that  will  be 
sought  for  in  vain  among  Grecian  structures.  Of  the 
Romans  it  may  be  said,  11  Mutant  quadrata  rotuadisnP 

Circular  forms,  and  curves  displaying  themselves  not  only 
in  elevation  and  section,  but  in  plan;  and  while,  among  the 
Greeks,  Architecture  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  ex- 
ternal appearance  and  effect,  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans  it 
was  made  to  minister  to  internal  display  of  the  most  enchant- 
ingly  picturesque  kind,  as  would  be  amply  attested  by  the 
Pantheon  alone.  In  that  edifice,  and  Hadrian’s  Mausoleum 


46 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


(now  barbarized  into  the  Castello  di  S.  Angelo),  the  cylin- 
drical form  was  exhibited  upon  an  imposing  scale;  in  the 
temple  at  Tivoli,  in  far  less  dimensions,  but  with  the  most 
captivating  taste ; and  again  in  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Meletta, 
we  have  a fine  example  of  an  unbroken  astylar  circular  mass. 

In  such  structures  as  the  Colosseum  and  other  Roman 
amphitheatres,  a different  form  of  curvature,  namely,  the 
ellipses,  was  employed  with  admirable  propriety  and  effect. 
In  the  interior,  again,  we  find  the  hemicycle  or  concave 
semi-circular  form,  both  frequently  and  variously  applied  by 
Romans  in  such  edifices  as  their  Baths,  which  afford  many 
excellent  studies  for  combination  of  plan. 

To  enter  into  the  system  of  Roman  Architecture  as  the 
subject  would  require,  would  very  far  exceed  our  present 
limits  and  purpose  ; much  less  can  we  pretend  to  treat  here 
of  the  still  more  varied  and  complex  Italian,  or  Modern 
European  system,  into  which  fenestration  so  largely  enters, 
columniation  being,  more  frequently  than  not,  subordinate. 
Were  we  to  touch  upon  the  last  mentioned  style  and  its 
various  elements,  it  could  be  only  so  superficially  as  to  be 
more  disappointing  than  instructive.  Better  that  our  reader 
should  admire  our  forbearance,  than  complain  of  our  unsat- 
isfactory jejuneness.  We  may,  however,  permit  ourselves  to 
throw  out  one  or  two  general  remarks  ; the  first  of  which  is 
that  it  is  a great  error  to  confound  with  the  Italian  the  two 
Ancient  Classical  styles,  applying  to  them  alike  the  epithet 
“ Grecian,”  merely  in  contradistinction  to  Gothic,  or  Medi- 
eval Architecture.  It  is  absurd  to  pretend  to  test  by  the 
Greek  style,  one  so  totally  differently  constructed  as  the 
Italian  ; an  error  that  could  hardly  have  been  fallen  into 
but  for  the  practice  of  applying  the  same  names  to  very  dif- 
ferent things.  The  term  Order  has  quite  a different  mean- 
ing as  applied  to  the  original  classical  mode  of  the  Art, 
from  what  it  has  in  the  other.  In  Italian  composition,  an 
Order  is  more  frequently  , than  not,  mere  decoration  in  the 
shape  of  columns  and  entablatures,  fashioned  secundum  artem} 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


47 


(a  very  different  thing  from  artistically,)  so  as  to  resemble 
in  detail,  and  certain  conventional  distinctions,  those  of  the 
Ancients.  Infinitely  better  would  it  have  been,  if,  instead 
of  allowing  themselves  to  be  misled  by  the  pedantry  of  Vi- 
truvius, the  Architects  of  the  so-called  Revival,  who  showed 
much  happiness  of  invention  in  other  respects,  had  treated 
the  Orders  freely;  or  perhaps  still  better,  had  they  worked 
out  ideas  of  their  own  for  columns  and  entablatures,  when- 
ever they  had  occasion  for  them,  either  as  matters  of  neces- 
sity, or  as  mere  decoration.  Had  Italians  allowed  them- 
selves greater  latitude  in  that  respect,  they  would,  in  all 
probability,  have  been  far  less  licentious  upon  the  whole 
than  they  frequently  were,  and  their  buildings  would  have 
been  more  homogeneous — more  of  a piece.  But  they,  for- 
sooth, be  one  of  the  Orders  or  all  of  them  at  once,  and  a 
great  deal  else  in  the  bargain.  Therefore  the  affecting  to 
retain  the  Ancient  Orders  in  their  purity,  served  no  other 
purpose  than  that  of  making  all  the  more  evident  how  com- 
pletely their  first  intention  and  character  had  been  lost 
sight  of. 

The  clinging  with  scrupulous  punctilio  to  what  had 
become  dead-letter  forms,  after  the  system  which  they  had 
produced  had  been  abandoned,  and  exchanged  for  another 
and  widely  different  one,  was  merely  superstition  and  ped- 
antry. It  might  show  acquaintance  with  traditional  learn- 
ing and  the  writings  of  Vitruvius  ; but  it  also  showed  dulness 
of  aesthetic  feeling,  or,  what  is  not  much  better,  deficiency 
of  aesthetic  power.  There  was,  however,  one  mode  of  apply- 
ing columns,  which,  although  generally  regarded  as  the  most 
licentious  and  un-orthodox,  nay,  even  preposterous, 
because  quite  contrary  to  all  classical  practice  and  prece- 
dent, has  at  least  one  propriety,  that  of  being  rational,  since 
columns  there  officiate  as  columns — as  real  support  ; 
whereas  in  a great  deal  of  Modern  Architecture,  that  is 
admired  for  the  correct  taste  it  displays,  columns  and  their 
entablatures  are  mere  expletives,  instead  of  actual  compo- 


48 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


nent  parts  of  the  fabric,  and  simulate  a mode  of  construction 
neither  required  for  nor  practiced  in  the  fabric  itself. 

The  particular  mode  here  alluded  to  is  that  in  which 
arches  are  not  introduced  together  with  columns,  but 
the  arches  are  not  only  introduced  together  with  colums,  but 
the  arches  and  columns  are  so  indissolubly  married  together 
that  they  cannot  be  divorced,  inasmuch  as  the  arches  are 
supported  by  the  columns  themselves,  the  former  springing 
immediately  from  the  capitals  of  the  latter.  Such  combi- 
nation, it  might  be  supposed,  would  be  gladly  admitted  as 
sufficiently  legitimate,  both  because  in  accordance  with 
rational  architectoric  principles,  and  because  it  greatly  ex- 
tends the  resources  of  the  Art  ; nevertheless  such  is  the 
omnipotence  of  prejudice,  that  instead  of  being  welcomed 
and  adopted  by  us,  it  has  been  decried  as  a barbarism.  As 
an  irresistible  and  crushing  argument  against  it,  we  are  told 
that  columns  were  not  originally  intended  to  be  so  applied; 
—admirable  logic,  truly  ! There  are  a great  many  other 
things  besides  columns  which  have  in  course  of  time  come  to 
be  applied  to  uses  not  originally  contemplated.  In  regard 
to  that  combination  of  columns  and  arches  according  to 
which  the  latter  spring  immediately  from  the  others,  and 
are  supported  by  them,  there  are  two  questions  : the  first 
and  practical  one,  Do  the  columns  afford  sufficient  support? 
the  second  and  aesthetic  one  is,  Is  there  also  sufficient 
appearance  of  support  ; or  is  there  anything  contradictory 
to  principle,  to  judgment  and  good  taste  ? The  first  ques- 
tion needs  no  answer,  since  it  answers  itself ; it  being  an 
indisputable  fact  that  columns  so  employed  do  answer  the 
purpose  to  which  they  are  turned.  The  other  question  is 
not  so  easily  answered  : the  prejudiced  will  of  course  answer 
it  according  to  their  own  contracted  taste  and  narrow 
notions,  condemning  the  mode  alluded  to,  without  any 
inquiry  into  its  merits  and  advantages,  merely  on  the  ground 
of  its  being  quite  at  variance  with  the  classical  system  of 
trabmted  columniation,  that  is,  with  columns  supporting  a 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


49 


horizontal  architrave  and  entablature,  or  general  horizontal 
trabeation.  That  by  the  substitution  of  arches  for  archi- 
traves, the  character  of  the  Greek  system  is  forfeited,  cannot 
be  denied  ; but  then  another  character  is  established  whose 
difference  from  the  original  one  ought  not  to  be  made  its 
condemnation.  To  demand  of  a different  mode  that  it 
should  resemble  and  conform  to  the  laws  of  that  from  which 
it  differs,  is  absurdity  in  the  extreme,  for  it  is  requiring  at 
once  that  it  shall  be  a different  one  and  the  same.  To 
compare  different  styles  is  a very  useful  sort  of  study  ; but 
to  make  any  one  style  the  criterion  or  standard  by  which 
others  are  to  be  judged,  is  preposterous. 

The  style  in  which  the  arch  and  column  enter  into  direct 
combination  with  each  other,  and  for  which  there  is  no  spe- 
cific name,  has  at  all  events  some  economical  recommenda- 
tions, inasmuch  as  shorter  columns,  and  fewer  of  them,  are  re- 
quired, than  would  be  necessary  for  the  same  height  and 
length  according  to  the  trabeated  mode.  In  itself,  too,  it 
possesses  much  capability ; yet  as  is  the  case  with  every 
other  style,  the  merit  of  the  works  produced  in  it  depends 
upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  treated,  and  the  talent 
brought  to  it.  There  is  no  style  of  the  Art  so  poetical  that 
the  flattest  prose  may  not  be  made  out  of  it  ; and  hardly 
any  so  utterly  prosaic  as  to  be  incapable  of  being  kindled 
into  poetry  by  the  Promethean  torch  of  generality — artistic 
treatment,  and  con  amort  aesthetic  feeling. 

INTERCOLUJfNIATION. 

Although  Intercolumniation  consists  only  in  regulating 
and  determining  the  spaces  between  the  columns,  and  con- 
sequently does  not  affect  the  nature  of  the  composition,  for  a 
tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  Ac.,  would  still  be  such,  no  matter  how 
narrow  or  wide  the  intercolumniaticns  or  intervals  between  the 
columns  may  be,  very  much  depends  upon  it  with  regard  to 
expression  and  effect.  How  intercolumniation  is  regulated 

5 


50 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


in  the  Doric  Order,  has  already  been  explained:  in  that  the 
distances  between  the  columns  is  generally  governed  entirely 
by  the  triglyphs  of  the  frieze,  so  that  there  can  be  no  medium 
between  monotriglyphic  and  ditriglyphic  in  intercolumniation, 
accordingly  as  there  is  either  one  or  two  triglyphs  over  each 
intercolumn.  But  in  the  other  orders  there  are  no  such  re- 
strictions: in  them  the  intercolumns  may  be  made  wider  or 
narrower,  as  circumstances  require,  but,  of  course,  under 
the  guidance  of  judgment  and  good  taste;  for  what  is  left 
a discretion  is  not  always  very  discreetly  used.  Vitruvius 
and  his  followers,  however,  have  not  cared  to  trust  to  discre- 
tion or  indiscretion,  but  have  fixed  certain  positive  or  distinct 
modes  of  intercolumniation,  viz.,  five,  to  wit: 

Pycnostyle,  or  closely  set,  in  which  the  intercolumns  are 
one  diameter  and  a quarter  or  a half  in  width. 

Systyle,  in  which  they  are  two  diameters  wide. 

Eustyle,  or  well  spaced,  in  which  they  are  two  diameters 
and  a half. 

Dyastyle,  in  which  they  are  three  diameters. 

Araeostyle,  or  thinly  set,  in  which  they  are  four  diameters. 

Let  us  repudiate  for  Architecture  all  such  formal,  Act  of 
of  Congress  legislation,  and  take  pycnostyle  and  aerostyle  as 
the  greatest  allowable  degree  of  distance  or  closeness  at  which 
the  columns  can  be  placed,  and  it  follows,  that  between  such 
maximum  and  minimum,  any  intermediate  measure  is  admis- 
sible, and  that  there  is  no  occasion  to  fix  it  positively  and 
arithmetically,  and  make  distinctions  which  are,  after  all, 
only  arbitrary.  There  are  a great  many  matters  in  design 
which  must  be  left  to  the  architect,  and  intercolumniation  is 
one  of  them.  It  is  impossible  to  have  precise  rules  for  every 
thing,  neither  is  it  desirable;  for,  if  everything  in  it  could  be 
done  by  rule,  Architecture  would  forfeit  its  nature  as  one  of 
the  fine  arts,  and  be  reduced  to  one  of  the  mechanical.  What 
is  done  by  rule  can  be  done  just  as  well  as  by  one  as  another. 

Excepting  the  terms  pycnostyle  and  arseostyle,  which  are 
useful  as  expressing  the  greatest  degree  of  closeness  or  of 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


51 


openness  of  inter-eolumniation  consistent  with  well-propor- 
tioned arrangement,  the  others  may  be  dispensed  with.  To 
designate  one  mode  as  eustyle , par  excelence,  is  very  much  like 
saying  that  the  proportions  assigned  to  it,  viz.,  2-30',  or  2| 
diameters,  are  the  very  best,  and  all  the  rest  comparatively 
defective;  according  to  which  doctrine,  the  monotriglyphic 
mode  of  inter-columniation  usually  employed  by  the  Greeks 
in  their  Doric  temples,  and  which  answers  to  the  character 
of  pycnostyle,  is  not  so  well-proportioned  as  what  is  emphati- 
cally called  eustyle.  Let  it  be  whatever  it  may,  as  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the  columns,  inter-columniation 
should  always  deserve  the  name  of  eustyle,  or  well-propor- 
tioned, by  being  such  as  satisfies  the  eye,  and  contributes  to 
the  particular  character  that  befits  the  occasion,  and  har- 
monizes with  the  other  proportions  of  the  structure.  Pyc- 
nostyle, or  close  spacing,  carries  with  it  the  expression  of 
both  richness  and  strength,  the  solids,  or  columns,  being 
very  little  less  than  the  voids  or  inter-columns.  Areeostyle, 
or  wide  spacing — and  ditriglyphic  Doric  inter-columniation 
may  be  called  such — produces  an  effect  of  openness  and 
lightness,  but  also  partakes  of  meagreness  and  weakness, 
owing  to  the  waut  of  sufficient  apparent  support  for  the 
entablature — a very  frequent  fault  in  modern  architecture, 
where  frugality  as  to  columniation  has  often  been  allowed  to 
produce  a degree  of  poverty,  which  contrasts  very  disagree- 
ably with  that  of  the  decoration  affected  by  the  Order  itself. 
Inter-columniation  ought  to  be  made  to  depend,  in  some 
measure,  upon  the  nature  of  the  composition:  a tetrastyle 
portico,  for  instance,  or  a distyle  in  antis,  admits  of  wider 
inter-columniation  than  would  be  suitable  for  an  octrastyle; 
because  pycnostyle,  where  there  are  only  three  inter-columns, 
would  produce  too  great  narrowness  of  general  proportions 
for  a portico. 

Hardly  is  there  need  for  observing,  that,  be  their  propor- 
tions what  they  may,  the  inter-columns  in  a colonade  or 
portico  must  be  all  alike;  nevertheless,  in  a Grecian  Doric 


52 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


portico  there  is,  as  we  have  seen,  some  difference,  the  two 
extreme  inter-columns  being  there  narrower  by  the  width  of 
half  a triglyph.  There  is,  besides,  another  exception  from 
the  general  principle ; for  the  centre  inter-column  of  a portico 
was  frequently  made  somewhat  wider  than  the  others,  in 
order  to  mark  the  entrance,  and  the  better  to  display  and 
afford  greater  space  for  access  to  the  door  within. 

One  mode  of  columniation  and  inter-columniation  which 
remains  to  be  spoken  of,  is  that  which  has  been  sometimes 
practised  by  modern  architects,  and  combines  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  pycnostyle,  or  still  closer  inter-columniation  and 
arseostyle.  This  consists  in  coupling  the  columns,  and  mak- 
ing a wide  inter-column  between  every  pair  of  columns;  so 
that,  as  regards  the  average  proportion  between  solids  and 
voids,  that  disposition  does  not  differ  from  what  it  would  be 
were  the  columns  placed  singly. 

Although  denounced  by  some  critics,  more  especially  Alga- 
ratti,  as  altogether  licentious  and  indefensible,  and  although 
it  is  not  to  be  specially  recommended  or  indeed  practicable 
on  every  occasion,  the  coupling  of  columns  may,  under  some 
circumstances,  be  not  only  excusable,  but  advisable  and 
proper.  As  is  the  case  with  almost  everything  else  in  mat- 
ters of  art,  all  depends  upon  hov:  it  is  done,  and  whether 
with  or  without  sufficient  reason.  That  there  is  no  classical 
authority  for  it,  is  no  valid  reason  against  it;  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  ancient  temples  there  was  nothing  to  require  or 
motive,  it.  It  may  be  conceded,  however,  that  coupled 
columns,  forming  a prostyle  surmounted  by  a pediment,  are 
objectionable;  because  where  so  strong  a resemblance  to  the 
antique  model  is  preserved  in  other  respects,  a departure  from 
it  in  regard  to  the  disposition  of  the  columns  has  a disturb- 
ing effect. 

Having  gone  through  the  Classical  Orders,  and  explained 
their  elements  and  constitution,  we  have  performed  as  much 
as  we  purposed  or  as  we  promised.  Within  the  same  com- 
pass we  might,  no  doubt,  have  touched  upon  a great  deal 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


53 


besides  that  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  Architecture, 
by  restricting  ourselves  to  bare  matter-of-fact,  and  suppress- 
ing all  comment,  and  so  treating  the  subject  drily  and  super- 
ficially. Proceeding  upon  the  principle  multum  hand  multa , 
we  have  aimed  at  nothing  more  than  to  initiate  the  reader  in 
such  a manner  as  to  excite  interest  in  the  subject  and  stimu- 
late further  inquiry.  Should  we  have  effected  that,  we  shall 
have  gained  our  purpose.  Although  the  Orders  have  been 
classified  according  to  the  old  division,  the  reader  must  re- 
member that  it  is  not  expected  that  he  shall  be  a plodder 
who  works  by  rate  and  routine.  Much,  very  much  indeed, 
will  have  been  learned  by  the  reader,  should  he  have  learned, 
or  have  been  put  in  the  way  of  learning,  to  look  upon  those 
various  compositions  in  the  several  Orders,  not  merely  with 
eyes  of  a Builder  or  a Mechanic,  but  with  the  intuition  and 
the  feeling  of  an  Artist;  in  short,  to  look  upon  them  as 
general  types  to  be  diligently  studied,  and  then  imitated  with 
congenial  gusto 


54 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


BOOK  II. 


SKETCHES  OF  THE  HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  STYLES  OF 
ARCHITECTURE  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES,  FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TO  THE 
PRESENT  TIME. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Architecture  cf  various  Countries. 

In  an  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  of  Architecture,  with  a 
view  to  a history  of  the  Styles  that  prevailed  in  this  and 
other  countries,  it  will  be  quite  unnecessary  to  give  any  ac- 
count of  the  different  kinds  of  tents,  huts,  and  other  timber 
erections  used  as  the  early  habitations  of  mankind,  resulting 
from  the  necessity  of  protection  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
seasons,  and  which  required  little  skill  or  knowledge  of  con- 
struction. Our  purpose  is  to  refer  only  to  such  ancient  erec- 
tions of  durable  materials  as  evince  a knowledge  of  some  sys- 
tematic construction,  or  were  the  source  from  which  pro- 
ceeded all  that  can  properly  be  called  Architecture. 

Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Egypt. 

The  first  city  that  contained  solid  and  durable  edifices  was 
Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire  and  the  residence 
of  the  Assyrian  kings,  founded  by  Asshur,  the  great-grandson 
of  Noah.*  Jonah  speaks  of  it  as  an  exceeding  great  city  of 
three  days’  journey  :”f  it  is  described  by  Strabo  as  larger 
than  Babylon:  the  walls,  according  to  Diodorus,  were  100 
feet  high,  and  so  broad  that  three  chariots  might  be  driven  on 
them  abreast:  upon  the  walls  stood  1500  towers,  each  200  feet 
in  height;  and  the  whole  was  so  strong  as  to  be  deemed  im- 
pregnable. That  this  city  must  have  been  one  of  great  gran- 
deur at  a very  early  period,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  It  is 
mentioned  as  a place  of  great  commercial  importance,  and 


* Genesis  x.  11.  “ Out  of  that  land  went  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh, 

t Chap.  iii.  3. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE, 


65 


“ its  merchants  as  more  than  the  stars  of  heaven.”  Nineveh 
was  taken  by  the  Medes  under  Arbaces,  in  the  eighth  century 
b.c.,  when  it  was  nearly  destroyed;  and  quite  so,  when  taken 
by  Cyaxeres,  625  b.  c.  All  that  now  remains  on  each  side 
of  the  Tigris  of  this  once  splendid  city,  has  the  appearance 
of  a range  of  hills,  from  which  large  stones  and  bricks  con- 
nected with  bitumen,  on  which  are  inscriptions,  are  frequently 
dug  up. 

The  next  city  noted  for  its  early  origin  was  Babylon, 
founded  by  Nimrod,  son  of  Cush,  and  grandson  of  Ham.*  It 
is  described  by  the  ancient  writers,  Strabo  and  Quintus  Cur- 
tius,  as  a city  of  great  strength  and  magnificence.  So  great 
was  the  circuit  of  its  walls  that  there  was  pasture  and  arable 
- land  within  them  sufficient  to  support  the  whole  population 
during  a long  siege.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  walls 
were  50  cubits  thick  and  200  in  height,  built  of  bricks  made 
from  the  earth  which  was  dug  out  of  the  ditch  that  surrounded 
the  city.  In  the  walls  were  100  gates  made  of  brass,  as 
well  as  the  jambs  and  lintels.  It  has  been  said,  that  if  there 
was  a city  which  seemed  to  bid  defiance  to  any  predictions 
of  its  fall,  that  city  was  Babylon,  for  a long  time  the  most 
famous  city  of  the  old  world,  whose  walls  were  reckoned 
amongst  its  wonders. 

The  ruins  that  have  been  discovered  on  each  side  of  the 
Euphrates  confirm  the  accounts  which  have  descended  to  us 
of  its  splendor,  although  nothing  now  remains  but  large  mass- 
es of  brick-work  laid  on  lime  mortar  of  good  quality.  On 
the  eastern  side,  it  is  supposed,  are  the  remains  of  the  great 
temple  of  Belus,f  which,  according  to  Diodorus,  was  higher 
than  the  largest  pyramid.  Among  the  ruins  are  to  be  found 
fragments  of  alabaster  vessels,  fine  earthenware,  marble,  and 
great  quantities  of  varnished  tiles,  whose  glazing  and  coloring 
are  still  fresh 


* Genesis  x.  10.  “And  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babel.” 
f The  temple  of  Belas,  as  described  by  Herodotus,  was  of  a pyramidal  form,  simi- 
lar to  the  Hindoo  temple  at  Tanjore,  and  the  great  Mexican  temples.  It  was 
founded  by  Semiramis,  1650  RC. 


56 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


Of  what  date  these  are,  it  is  impossible  to  conjecture,  as 
so  little  information  exists  on  this  interesting  subject.  We 
are  told  that  in  the  time  of  Semiramis,  Queen  of  Assyria, 
1665  b.  c.,  an  extensive  and  splendid  palace  existed  on  each 
side  of  the  Euphrates,  connected  by  a tunnel  under  the  river, 
and  likewise  that  a bridge  was  built  by  Nitocris  to  connect 
the  two  parts  of  the  city  divided  by  the  Euphrates.  The 
piers  were  of  large  hewn  stones,  in  order  to  erect  which  the 
course  of  the  river  was  diverted,  and  its  bed  left  dry. 

The  city  was  brought  to  its  highest  degree  of  perfection 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  the  year  600  b.  c.;  but  its  splen- 
dor must  have  been  of  short  duration,  as  about  60  years 
after  the  death  of  that  monarch,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Belshazzar,  it  was  taken  by  Cyrus.  From  that  time  it 
gradually  declined,  and  afterwards  became  a part  of  the 
great  Persian  monarchy. 

The  Egyptian  Thebes,* *  situated  near  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  that  empire,  is  the  most  ancient  city  of  whose  buildings 
any  remains  exist  at  the  present  time.  The  period  of  its 
foundation  ascends,  probably,  to  the  same  antiquity  as  that 
of  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  It  was  the  first  seat  of  the 
Egyptian  government, j*  which,  at  an  early  period,  was 
transferred  to  Memphis,  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
empire.  From  this  time,  its  importance  declined:  but  the 
imperishable  nature  of  the  materials,  and  the  immensity  of 
its  masses,  have  preserved  the  buildings  for  more  than  three 
thousand  years.  Memphis,  less  fortunately  situated,  by 
being  nearer  the  line  of  communication  between  Asia  and 
Africa,  has  been  more  subject  to  the  destructive  caprices  of 
man,  and  has  disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.*  At 

* The  mast  ancient  name  of  Thebes  is  Pathros,  and  it  was  so  called  from  Path- 
yuism,  son  of  Mizraim  and  son  of  Ham.  Mizraim  was  the  first  occupier  ©f  the 
country  of  Egypt. 

f The  first  king  mentioned  is  Menes,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  2600  a .e. , and 
contemporary  with  the  era  of  the  Chinese  emperor  Gao,  with  whom  the  historical 
period  of  China  begins. 

* Egypt  was  conquered  by  Cambyses,  525  years  B»  C.  j after  which  time  it  became 
& province  of  Persia. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


57 


present  the  site  of  the  city  of  Thebes  is  occupied  by  four 
principal  villages,— Luxor  and  Karnac  on  the  eastern  side, 
Gournah  and  Medinet-Abou  on  the  western  side  of  the 
river.  The  buildings  and  sculpture  of  this  gigantic  “city 
of  a hundred  gates,”  still  extant,  are  the  most  ancient  that 
exist  in  Egypt,  and  are  the  best  and  most  genuine  specimens 
of  Egyptian  art  and  architecture ; for  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  by  far  the  greater  part  were  executed  before 
Egypt  had  yet  experienced  the  influence  of  the  Greeks,  and 
long  before  the  Persian  invasion. 

The  ruins,  chiefly  consisting  of  temples,  colossi,  sphinxes, 
and  obelisks,  occupy  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  a space  of  six  miles  from  east  to  west.  On  the 
western  side,  where  the  ruins  of  this  vast  city  terminate, 
those  of  the  “city  of  the  dead”  commence,  among  which 
there  are  tombs  excavated  in  the  rocks,  and  decorated  with 
paintings — still  as  fresh  as  though  the  artist’s  hand  had  been 
engaged  upon  them  but  a few  weeks  past. 

The  principal  remains  of  Egyptian  architecture  (chiefly 
temples)  are  to  be  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and 
extend  from  Cairo  to  Nubia,  a distance  of  500  miles.  The 
peculiarity  observable  in  all,  is  the  great  sublimity  of  the 
masses,  the  grandeur  and  severity  of  every  line,  by  which 
their  buildings  bear  the  stamp  of  that  sentiment  of  eternal 
duration  which  they  were  always  so  anxious  to  realize  in 
their  monuments. 

At  a very  early  period  the  Egyptians  were  extremely 
skilful  in  working  stone,  an  art  in  which  they  have  never 
been  surpassed.  The  large  blocks  of  stone  of  which  their 
temples  are  composed  are  well  squared,  and  so  laid  that  the 
joints  are  scarcely  visible. 

The  most  interesting  and  complete  temple  in  the  whole 
valley  of  the  Nile  is  that  of  Edfou,  about  25  miles  above 
Thebes.  This  great  and  magnificent  temple  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  Egypt,  and  is  in  comparatively  good  preservation. 
Its  form  is  rectangular,  and  its  general  dimensions  450  feet 


58 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


by  140  feet.  In  the  centre  of  one  of  the  sides  is  the  entrance 
between  two  sloping  towers,  100  feet  in  length  by  32  feet  in 
width,  on  the  surface  of  which  are  represented  some  colossal 
figures;  and  above  these  are  two  rows  of  smaller  ones,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  divinities  of  the  temple,  receiving  the  offer- 
ings of  the  Ptolemies.  Within  is  a court,  surrounded  by  a 
colonnade  on  three  sides,  and  on  the  side  facing  the  entrance 
is  a beautiful  pronaos  or  portico,  of  eighteen  columns:  beyond 
this  is  another  of  smaller  dimensions ; and  further  on  are  the 
walls  which  protect  the  sanctuary  and  its  dependencies:  these 
are  so  completely  filled  up  with  sand  and  soil,  that  it  is  nearly 
impossible  to  reach  them.  All  the  columns,  friezes,  and  cor- 
nices, and  the  whole  surfaces  of  the  walls,  inside  as  well  as 
out,  both  of  the  pronaos  and  court,  are  covered  with  symboli- 
cal sculptures,  hieroglyphical  inscriptions,  and  representations 
of  offerings  to  their  divinities. 

Of  all  the  works  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  those  which  have 
caused  the  greatest  wonder  to  the  world  at  large  are  the 
Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  supposed  by  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  to 
have  been  erected  2120  years  b.  c.*  Herodotus  dates  the 
Great  Pyramid  about  900  years  b.c.,  or  about  450  years 
before  he  visited  Egypt.  Chevalier  Bunsen  places  them 
about  2000  years  before  that  period;  and  this  is  confirmed 
by  the  opinions  of  Champollion  and  Rosellini. 

The  Great  Pyramid,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Cheops,  f is 
TOO  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  410  feet  in  height;  the  second 
is  650  feet  square,  and  160  feet  in  height;  the  third,  400  feet 
square,  and  160  feet  in  height.  About  300  paces  from  the 
second  pyramid  stands  the  gigantic  statue  of  the  Sphinx, 
whose  length,  from  the  forepart  to  the  tail,  has  been  found  to 
be  125  feet.  Belzoni  cleared  away  the  sand,  and  found  a 
temple  between  its  legs,  and  another  in  one  of  its  paws. 

The  mechanical  skill  of  the  Egyptians  is  shown  in  their 
quarrying  and  working  stone ; and  the  means  that  must  have 


* And  attributed  by  him  to  Suphis  and  Sen-suphia. 
f The  other  two  by  Cophrenes  and  Mycerinue. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


69 


been  used  to  convey  such  immense  blocks  of  stone  as  we  find 
in  their  works,  from  quarries  situated  at  a distance  from  them, 
naturally  surprise  us. 

The  obelisks  of  Thebes  and  Heliopolis  vary  in  size  from  7 0 
to  93  feet  in  length,*  and  are  built  of  one  stone.  The  largest 
in  Egypt,  which  is  at  the  great  temple  at  Karnac,  is  calculated 
to  weigh  297  tons,  and  was  brought  about  138  miles  from 
the  quarry.  Those  at  Heliopolis  passed  over  a space  of  800 
miles. 

The  two  colossal  statues  in  a sitting  attitude  (one  of  which 
is  the  vocal  Memnon),  are  each  of  a single  block,  47  feet  in 
height,  and  contain  11,500  cubic  feet:  they  are  carved  from 
stone  not  known  within  several  days’  journey  from  the  place 
where  the  statues  are  found;  and  at  Memnonium  is  a colossal 
statue,  which,  when  entire,  weighed  887  tons.  The  raising 
of  the  obelisks  is  considered  a far  greater  test  of  mechanical 
skill  than  the  transport  of  these  prodigious  weights ; but  into 
the  mode  that  was  adopted  we  have  no  insight  from  any  re- 
presentations yet  discovered. 

Of  the  taste,  style,  and  character  of  Egyptian  Architecture, 
little  can  be  said  beyond  admiration  at  the  immensity  of  the 
works,  and  the  patience  with  which  they  must  have  been 
accomplished. 

The  masses  of  material  which  the  country  produced 
measured  their  efforts  and  conceptions,  and  their  inven- 
tion was  exhausted  by  a very  restricted  number  of  combi- 
nations. 

Their  monuments  are  admirable  for  grandeur  and  solidity, 
and  they  have  a truly  imposing  effect;  but  we  can  only  con- 
sider them  as  part  of  the  history  of  Architecture  and  Art, 
because  the  ornaments  and  sculpture,  originating  from  a sym- 
bolical religion  peculiar  to  the  Egyptians,  admit  of  no  revival, 
even  were  art  more  immediately  connected  with  them. 

The  columns  are  evidently  a representation  of  a bundle 
of  reeds  or  lotus-stems,  tied  together  at  the  top  and  base,  the 


* Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson’s  “ Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.” 


m 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


leaves  of  which,  as  well  as  those  of  the  palm,  are  chiefly  used 
in  ornamenting  the  capitals* 


CHAPTER  II. 

Grecian  Architecture . 

Architecture  and  Art  have  been  always  progressive,  and 
have  not  appeared  at  once  in  full  perfection ; yet,  in  our  ad- 
miration of  their  perfection,  we  do  not  always  consider  the 
history  of  their  progression,  or  the  sources  from  whence  they 
sprang,  No  style,  with  the  exception  of  the  Egyptian,  was 
the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  soil  on  which  it  flourished,  or 
proceeded  directly  from  the  nations  that  practised  it;  the 
the  germs  of  all  other  styles  were  borrowed  from  people 
whose  habits  and  religious  customs  were  totally  dissimilar; 
and  its  advances  or  improvements  were  the  natural  results 
of  civilization,  caused  by  intercourse  with  other  nations  in 
times  of  peace,  or  by  the  adoption  of  all  that  was  worthy 
of  imitation  in  conquered  states,  during  the  incessant  wars 
that  were  carried  on  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  world. 

Thus  was  it  with  the  much-admired  Architecture  and  Arts 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  so  that  centuries  elapsed  ere  any  thing 
worthy  of  those  terms  was  to  be  found  in  either  empire. 

Greece  was  divided  into  a number  of  petty  states,  which,  in- 
dependent of  each  other,  and,  therefore,  necessarily  rivals,  sur- 
rounded themselves,  as  a means  of  protection,  with  thick  walls, 
long  before  they  had  learned  the  art  of  building  temples,  and 
when  their  huts  or  houses  were  of  the  rudest  character.  The 
first  erections  were  their  acropoles,  invariably  situated  on 
eminences  which  were  converted  into  citadels,  and  served  for 
places  of  security  when  the  population  became  too  numerous 
to  remain  in  them,  and  had  spread  themselves  over  the  sur- 
rounding plains.  The  acropoles  usually  contained  all  things 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  community,  such  as  the  public 
treasures,  the  archives,  and  the  temples  of  the  tutelary 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


61 


divinities;  indeed,  they  were  to  the  Greeks  what  the  capitol 
was  to  the  Romans. 

The  oldest  remains  of  walls  and  acropoles  exist  at  Tiryns, 
or  Tyrinthus,  and  Mycenae,  near  Argus,  in  the  Morea,  and  are 
said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cyclopes,  a tribe  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  arrived  from  Thrace  or  Phoenicia,  and  settled 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  date  uf  the  masonry  is  supposed  to  be 
coeval  with  the  time  of  Abraham,  who  arrived  in  Canaan  b.  c. 
1917.*  Sir  William  Gell  makes  the  date  of  the  buildings  b.  c. 
1379.  All  that  at  present  exists  of  Tiryns  consists  of  portions 
of  the  walls  of  the  acropolis,  which  are  from  21  to  25  feet  in 
thickness,  aud  45  feet  in  height,  built  of  tremendous  blocks 
of  stone,  from  10  to  13  feet  long,  and  4 feet  4 inches  thick.  In 
the  thickness  of  these  walls  are  two  ranges  of  galleries,  each  5 
feet  broad  and  about  12  feet  high:  the  shape  of  these  passages 
is  triangular,  the  sides  sloping  upward  until  they  meet.  This 
form  was  obtained  by  making  the  horizontal  courses  of  mason- 
ry project  one  beyond  the  other,  the  edge  of  each  course  being 
splayed  off  so  as  to  give,  from  the  interior,  very  much  the 
apppearance  of  a kind  of  arch  having  been  constructed.  They 
probably  conducted  round  the  whole  of  the  citadel,  and  were 
used  as  shelters  for  the  garrison  during  the  night  or  bad 
weather.  Mr.  W oodsf  says,  that  no  tool  seems  to  have  been 
applied  to  the  stone,  but  that  the  rude  masses  are  merely 
heaped  on  one  another,  taking  care  in  the  position  of  each  suc- 
cessive block  to  place  it  where  it  would  most  exactly  fit  into- 
the  work,  and  most  probably  keeping  the  smoothest  side  out- 
wards to  form  the  face  of  the  work.  The  workmanship 
of  these  walls  is  nothing  more  than  that  of  the  modern  fencing 
without  mortar,  the  interstices  between  the  larger  stones  being 
filled  up  with  others  of  smaller  size,  unworked,  and  merely 
heaped  on  one  another.  Pausanias  informs  us,  that  when  the 
Argives  attempted  to  destroy  Tiryns,  the  walls  were  so  strong 
that  they  could  not  throw  them  down:  he  also  describes  them 


* Fosbroke. 

t “ Letters  on  Architecture,  ” 2 vols.  4to. 


62 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMEMTS 


to  be  equally  worthy  of  admiration  with  the  Pyramids  of 
Egypt,  f 

The  next  city  connected  with  Greece  that  demands  our 
notice,  on  account  of  its  early  fortifications  and  acropolis, 
of  which  parts  exist  at  the  present  time,  is  Mycenae,  near 
Argos,  likewise  built  by  the  Cyclopes,  or  by  Mycenaeus, 
b.  c.  It 00,  and  considerably  enlarged  by  Perseus  about 
b.  c.  1390.  The  walls  of  this  city,  like  those  of  Tiryns,  are 
in  some  places  built  of  rough  stones,  from  8 to  9 feet  in 
length:  when  entire,  they  must  have  been  60  feet  high, 
although  at  present,  in  the  most  perfect  part,  their  height  is 
only  43  feet.  The  general  thickness  is  21  feet,  but  in  some 
places  25  feet,  and  they  are  mostly  constructed  of  well- 
jointed  polygonal  stone.  Some  remains  of  towers  are  dis- 
cernible. 

“ The  Gate  of  the  Lions”  owes  its  celebrity  to  the  basso- 
relievo  by  which  it  is  surmounted,  the  subject  of  which  is 
two  lions,  with  their  fore-paws  resting  on  a pedestal:  from 
this  the  gateway  takes  its  name.  This  sculpture  (on  a 
triangular  stone  over  the  architrave)  is  the  most  ancient 
specimen  of  this  kind  of  Grecian  art;  it  is  10  feet  6 inches 
wide  at  the  base,  and  9 feet  in  height:  between  the  lions  is 
a semi-circular  pillar,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the  Doric 
Order,  although,  contrary  to  the  general  usage,  it  increases 
in  size  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  date  of  this  sculp- 
ture is  supposed  by  some  to  be  nearly  coeval  with  the  other 
part.  Pausanias  mentions,  that  in  his  day  it  was  reported 
to  be  the  work  of  the  Cyclopes:  however  this  may  be,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  but  that  it  is  the  oldest  specimen  of  Gre- 
cian sculpture  now  existing.  The  architrave  over  this  gate 
is  of  one  stone,  15  feet  long,  and  4 feet  4 inches  in  height, 
and  in  it  are  visible  sockets  of  about  3 inches  in  diameter, 
which  received  the  pivots  upon  which  the  gates  turned. 


f Sir  WiUiam  Gell  states,  that  on  the  centre  of  the  architrave  of  the  gates  are 
holes,  which  leads  him  to  suppose  that  the  gates  were  hung  from  large  central 
pivots,  so  that  one  side  opened  inwards,  while  the  others  advanced. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


63 


We  may  here  mention  a subterranean  building  at  Mycenae, 
known  as  the  Treasury  of  Atreus,  the  father  of  Agamemnon:* 
the  priucipal  chamber  is  of  a circular  form,  48  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  about  49  feet  in  height.  The  covering  of  this 
building  has  the  appearance  of  the  inside  of  a dome,  which 
has  led  some  authors  to  suppose  that  the  arch  was  known 
in  Greece  at  a very  early  period  ; but  it  is  now  ascertained 
that  the  principle  of  the  arch  does  not  exist  in  it,  as  the 
construction  is  the  same  as  in  the  arched  passages  at  Tiryns : 
the  courses  are  horizontal,  each  projecting  beyond  the  other, 
with  the  lower  angles  cut  away  until  they  meet  at  the  apex, 
which  consists  of  one  very  large  stone.  Beyond  this  is  a 
vault  or  inner  chamber,  in  the  wralls  of  which,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  larger  chamber,  are  a number  of  bronze  nails, 
which  in  all  probability  were  used  to  fasten  plate  of  metal 
to  the  walls  ; a custom  doubtless  resorted  to  on  some 
occasions,  as  we  read  of  “ brazen  chambers”  and  “ bra- 
zen temples.”f  The  courses  of  stone  in  this  build- 

* Atreus  came  to  tlie  throne  of  Argos  927  B.  c. 

f There  are  other  instances  of  subterraneous  chambei-s  being  lined  with  thin 
plates  of  metal  ; that  at  Argos,  in  which  Acrisius  confined  his  daughter,  was  prob- 
ably similar  to  those  of  the  adjacent  rival  city.— Vide  Donaldson’s  ‘ Description  of 
the  Subterranean  Chamber  at  My  cense.  ’ 


64 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ing  are  regular, 
although  of  un- 
equal size,  and 
laid  without  ce- 
ment : the  lintel 
of  the  door  is  of 
one  piece  of 
stone,  of  about 
27  feet  long,  17 
feet  wide,  and 
3 feet  9 inches 
thick,  and  is 
calculated  to 
weigh  about  133 
tons  ; a mass  of 
stone  to  which 
none  can  be 
compared,  ex- 
cepting those 
used  in  Egypt.* 
Notwithstand- 
ing the  magni- 
tude of  these 
works,  the  sci- 
ence of  Mechan- 
ics was  in  its  in- 
fancy, and  the 


* Mr  Donaldson  states  that  “ there  are  numerous  buildings  and  excavations 
in  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  constructed  in  a manner  similar  to  this  subterraneous 
chamber.  In  the  Memnonium  at  Thebes  is  an  oblong  chamber,  covered  by  a semi- 
circular vaulting,  the  stones  of  which  have  horizontal  courses  projecting  beyond 
each  other  as  they  advance  in  height,  so  as  to  produce  that  curvilinear  form. 
Near  Noto  in  Sicily,  in  the  district  of  Falconara,  on  the  road  from  Mititello  to  Vizzi; 
also  in  Sardinia,  where  these  chambers  are  known  by  the  name  of  Norages  ; and  at 
Tusculum,  near  Rome,  the  same  construction  exists  ; but  in  none  of  these  do  we 
possess  such  correct  dates  as  Pausanias  and  history  itself  furnish  of  those  of 
Orcomenus  and  Myceme.” — Vide  supplementary  volume  to  the  ‘Antiquities  of 
Athens.  ’ 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


65 


Greeks  bestowed  but  little  attention  on  their  private  houses: 
all  the  splendor  and  magnificence  of  art  was  reserved  for  the 
embellishment  of  their  temples  and  other  public  buildings.* 
The  most  splendid  period  of  the  Grecian  history  was  be- 
tween the  sixth  and  fourth  centuries  before  the  Christian 
tra,  during  the  time  of  the  wars  that  were  carried  on  be- 
tween the  Persians  and  the  principal  states  of  Greece,  and 
to  which  the  greatest  prosperity  of  the  Athenians  may  be 
attributed:  literature  was  cultivated,  and  the  arts  of  archi- 
tecture and  sculpture,  which  were  employed  to  ornament  the 
city,  were  carried  to  a degree  of  excellence  that  has  never 
been  surpassed.  Greece  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  146 
b.  c.,  and  became  a Roman  province,  although  Athens  and 
Delphi  were  declared  as  free  towns.  Its  history  from  this 
period  is  without  interest  to  us  in  our  inquiry  into  the  pro- 
gress of  art.  It  was  overrun  by  the  Goths  in  261  a.  d., 
and  again  in  398  a.  d.  under  Alaric;  and  after  being  occu- 
pied by  the  Crusaders  and  Venetians,  at  last  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Turks,  on  the  conquest  of  Constantinople. f 


CHAPTER  III. 

Roman  Architecture . 

The  Architecture  of  the  Romans  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  original  ; it  was  unquestionably  borrowed  from  the 
Etruscans.  Etruria,  a city  of  Italy  now  called  Tuscany,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a colony  of  Greece.  This  opinion  has 
been  formed  by  the  great  solidity  of  the  walls  that  surround 
their  cities,  consisting  of  enormous  blocks  of  stone,  similar 

* One  remark  may  not  be  out  of  place  here,  which  will  explain  the  mode  of 
deciding  on  the  date  of  the  temples,  viz.,  that  in  the  earliest  the  diameter  of  the 
columns  was  greater  in  proportion  to  their  height,  and  the  intercolumniations 
were  less,  than  those  of  a later  period. 

f The  cloacae,  or  sewers,  which  extended  under  the  whole  of  Rome,  were  a work 
on  which  time  and  expense  were  not  spared  ; they  were  of  wrought  stone,  and  in 
height  and  breadth  were  so  considerable  that  a cart  loaded  with  hay  could  pass 
through  them.  How  insignificant  must  our  own  drainage  appear,  iu  comparison 
with  this  stupendous  work  I 


66 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


to  the  masonry  of  the  Cyclopes,  and  said  to  be  coeval  with 
the  walls  of  Tiryns,  Eycenae,  and  other  works  of  a very  early 
age.  The  instruction  in  the  art  of  building  that  the  Romans 
received  from  the  Etruscans  was  not  probably  before  the 
time  of  the  Tarquins,  540  b.  c.,  when  their  edifices  began 
to  be  constructed  on  fixed  principles.  The  first  Tarquin, 
who  was  a native  of  Etruria,  did  much  towards  the  improve- 
ment of  Rome,  and  brought  from  his  native  country  a taste 
for  that  grandeur  and  solidity  which  prevailed  in  the  Etrus- 
can works.  Under  his  reign  the  city  was  fortified,  and  the 
walls  built  of  hewn  stone.  The  reign  of  the  second  Tarquin 
was  distinguised  by  the  erection  of  temples,  schools  for  both 
sexes,  and  halls  for  the  administration  of  justice  : this  was 
about  508  b.  c.  : but  to  Tarquinius  Superbus,  the  seventh 
and  last  king,  Rome  was  indebted  for  its  greatest  improve- 
_ments  ; he  continued  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus,  finished  the  Circus  and  other  public  buildings, 
and  made  a regular  drainage  of  the  city  to  the  Tiber.* 

It  will  be  impossible  to  trace  the  Architecture  of  the 
Romans  through  its  various  stages  between  the  time  of  the 
last  king,  508  b.  c.,  and  the  subjugation  of  Greece  by  that 
people  in  145  b.  c.,  a period  of  363  years.  The  disputes 
in  which  they  were  continually  engaged  left  little  leisure  for 
the  arts  of  peace.  During  the  time  that  Appius  Claudius 
was  Censor,  about  309  b.  c.,  the  earliest  paved  road  was 
made  by  the  Romans  ; it  was  first  carried  to  Capua,  and 
afterwards  continued  a length  altogether  of  350  miles  : it 
was  paved  with  the  hardest  stone,  and  it  remains  entire  at 
the  present  day.  To  Appius  Claudius  belongs  the  honor  of 
raising  the  first  aqueduct  : the  water  with  which  it  supplied 
the  city  was  collected  from  the  neighborhood  of  Frascati, 
about  100  feet  above  the  level  of  Rome. 

The  materials  for  carrying  on  a continuous  investigation 

* We  have  been  compelled  to  go  into  the  general  history  of  the  nations  in  which 
Architecture  has  originated,  as  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  give  the  history  of  one 
without  the  other  An  improvement  in  art  has  invariably  been  caused  by  some 
great  change  in  the  policy  or  religion  of  nations. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


67 


of  the  styles  of  the  Roman  buildings  are  so  scanty,  that  we 
will  not  detain  the  reader  with  useless  speculations,  but  at 
once  proceed  to  that  period  when  Greece  was  reduced  to  a 
Roman  province,  145  b.  c.  Art,  in  the  strict  application 
of  that  word,  was  not  properly  understood  by  the  victorious 
Romans  at  this  time;  but  after  a succession  of  triumphant 
wars,  when  immense  treasure  was  brought  to  Rome,  and 
they  wished  to  celebrate  their  victories,  there  became  a 
necessity  for  erections  to  record  them,  and  the  riches  that 
were  amassed  were  expended  in  the  adornment  of  Rome. 

The  Greek  Architects  who  settled  in  Italy  executed  works 
of  great  beauty;  they  founded  a school  of  art,  and  modified 
that  which  were  practised  in  their  own  country,  to  suit  the 
habits,  taste,  and  climate  of  the  Romans.  The  Romans 
were  at  all  times  anxious  to  subjugate,  for  their  own  purposes, 
those  nations  that  successfully  cultivated  the  arts;  a motive 
which,  joined  to  the  desire  of  aggrandizement,  induced  them 
at  a very  early  period  to  carry  their  arms  against  the  Etrus- 
cans, who  were  in  a far  higher  state  of  civilization  than  them- 
selves. We  find  that  they  drew  supplies  of  artists  from  Sicily, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  instead  of  employing  their  own 
citizens.  Although,  in  Rome,  Architecture  lost  its  simplicity, 
it  gained  in  magnificence:  it  there  took  a deeper  root  than 
the  other  arts,  from  its  affording,  by  the  dimensions  of  its 
monuments,  more  splendor  to  the  character  of  so  dominating 
a nation. 

The  first  effort  of  Architecture  was  shown  in  the  temple 
reared  to  Minerva  at  Rome,  by  Pompey  the  Great,  about 
60  years  b.  c.  The  villas  of  the  Romans  were  at  this  period 
of  considerable  extent : the  statues  of  Greece  had  been 
required  for  their  decoration,  besides  a plentiful  supply  of 
all  that  Greek  art  afforded.  We  find  that  Cicero  was  in  the 
habit  of  employing  two  Greek  ..architects,  Chrysippus  and 
Clautius,  on  his  buildings. 

The  first  permanent  theatre  that  existed  in  Rome  was 


68 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


built  by  Pompey,  54  b.  c.,  and  was  capable  of  containing 
40,000  persons. 

In  the  time  of  Augustus  (from  30  b.  c.  to  14  a.  d.)  we 
find  that  the  Italian  buildings  attained  a point  of  magnifi- 
cence far  beyond  all  that  preceded.  The  conquest  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  then  known  world,  added  to  a general 
peace,  allowed  the  sovereign  to  turn  his  thoughts  to  the 
improvement  of  his  country;  and  a constellation  of  illustrious 
philosophers  and  poets,  who  shone  at  this  time  in  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  empire,  gave  the  minds  of  the  people  an  inclination 
towards  subjects  more  useful  and  honorable  than  the  conquest 
of  remote  and  unoffending  nations.  The  patronage  of  litera- 
ture with  the  fine  arts  by  Augustus  produced  the  most 
brilliant  results,  and  has  caused  a veneration  for  the  age  in 
which  he  lived.  The  perfection  which  literature  and  archi- 
tecture attained  during  his  dominion  effected  more  towards 
immortalizing  Rome  than  all  the  conquests  of  its  emperors, 
and  raised  its  inhabitants  to  a state  of  civilization  never 
before  equalled.  By  him  was  .erected  the  temple  and  forum 
of  Mars  the  Avenger,  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  and  a large 
number  of  other  public  buildings.  His  boast  was  not  a vain 
one,  when  he  asserted  that  he  found  his  capital  built  of  brick, 
and  he  left  it  of  marble. 

Nero  was  the  next  emperor  (with  the  exception  of  Clau- 
dius*) who  seemed  to  have  given  his  attention  to  Architec- 
ture; but  his  buildings  must  be  considered  more  as  monu- 
ments of  his  prodigality  and  expenditure  than  of  correct 
taste.  A palace  was  erected  for  him,  than  which  nothing 
could  be  more  gorgeous,  nor  could  the  pomp  of  decoration 
be  carried  further. 

The  reigns  of  Vespasian  and  Titus  are  justly  celebrated 
by  the  erection  of  baths  and  amphitheatres  of  such  magni- 
tude as  to  astonish  the  world,  and  to  which  nothing  of  their 


* During  the  reign  of  Claudius,  one  of  the  finest  aqueducts  of  Rome  was  com- 
pleted, whose  length  is  46  miles,  and  the  water  passes  over  arches  raised  more 
than  100  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  for  nearly  10  miles  of  it. 


©F  ARCHITECTURE. 


(59 


kind,  either  before  or  since,  will  bear  comparison.  The  Co- 
liseum, so  named  from  its  gigantic  dimensions,  was  com- 
menced and  finished  by  Yespasian  and  Titus:  it  was  capable 
of  containing  109,000  spectators,  who  could  view  the  sports 
and  combats  in  the  arena.  The  baths  of  Titus  wrere  among 
the  wonders  of  the  age ; but  their  remains  are  not  so  perfect 
as  those  of  others,  although  they  are  still  majestic.*  The 
Temple  of  Peace,  the  largest  covered  building  of  antiquity, 
and  another  temple  dedicated  to  Minerva,  of  the  richest  and 
most  exquisite  workmanship,  were  erected  at  this  time,  from 
TO  to  81  A.D. 

To  give  a further  description  of  the  buildings  of  ancient 
Home  would  be  unnecessary,  as  our  object  is  only  to  treat 
of  the  history  of  the  Styles  of  Architecture,  to  show  the 
periods  at  which  they  attained  their  greatest  excellence,  and 
to  trace,  as  far  as  possible,  the  connection  of  one  with  the 
other.  We  therefore  pass  over  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and 
Hadrian,  celebrated  for  some  fine  architectural  works,  and 
proceed  to  the  styles  that  sprung  up,  on  the  decline  of  the 
empire,  among  those  nations  that  borrowed  their  first  prin- 
ciples of  art  from  the  Romans. 


CHAPTER  IY. 

Byzantium  and  Romanesque. 

Prom  the  time  of  Hadrian,  111  a.d.,  to  that  of  Constan- 
tine, a general  decline  in  the  Arts  took  place,  which,  how- 
ever, seemed  to  revive  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor,  and  many 
proofs  are  still  extant.  The  churches  that  were  built  imme- 
diately after  Constantine’s  espousal  of  the  Christian  faith. 
The  basilic®,  or  halls  of  justice  of  the  ancient  Romans,  were 
undoubtedly  the  types  from  which  these  churches  were  taken; 
and  the  ruins  of  these  buildings  were  often  the  materials 
used.  The  columns  that  divide  the  centre  of  the  church 


* The  baths  of  Diocletian,  erected  294  A.  n.,  were  of  great  extent  and  magnifi- 
cence, and  are  in  a better  state  of  preservation  than  those  of  Titus. 


70 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


were  often  taken  from  old  buildings — some  were  reduced  in 
height,  others  were  mounted  on  pedestals  to  suit  the  pur- 
poses to  which  they  were  applied. 

Among  the  edifices  demanding 
notice  are:  the  basilicia  of  St. 

Clement  at  Rome,  said  to  be 
built  on  the  spot  occupied  by  St. 

Clement,  the  immediate  successor 
of  St.  Peter.  This  is  the  only 
edifice  of  this  style  which  we  can 
describe  in  this  work.  It  is  en- 
tered by  a court,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  porticoes  and  sup- 
ported by  columns  and  piers;  on 
the  sides  parallel  to  the  front  of 
the  church  arches  spring  from 
the  columns,  but  on  the  others 
there  are  only  architraves.  Un- 
der the  portico  nearest  the  tem- 
ple were  placed  the  holy-water- 
vases,  until  in  after  times  they 
were  removed  in  the  body  of  the 
church  at  the  western  door.  The 
centre  part  of  the  atrium  was  then 
used  for  burial  purposes.  The 
sacristy,  like  all  Christian 
churches  then,  was  semicircular 

in  plan,  and  the  altar,  the  throne  for  the  bishop,  and  exedra, 
or  benches  for  the  priests.  It  was  surmounted  by  a half- 
cupola, the  front  of  which  is  richly  ornamented  with 
marble  and  paintings  of  Christ  and  the  Saints.  The 
cupola  is  covered  with  paintings  of  foliage  on  a gold  ground; 
the  remainder  of  this  semicircular  part,  known  by  the  name 
of  “apsis,”  is  richly  ornamented  with  figures  of  the  Saints. 
On  each  side  of  the  apsis  were  small  apis  sides.  One  of 
them  was  called  the  vestiarium,  and  contained  the  priests’ 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


n 


robes  and  the  consecrated  vessels;  the  other,  the  evangelium, 
received  the  sacred  books,  charters,  &c.  &c.  This  arrange- 
ment still  exists  in  Greece.  The  chancel,  which  was  used  by 
the  inferior  ecclesiastics,  and  contained  the  pulpit  and  am- 
bones,  was  situated  in  front  of  the  apsis,  and  enclosed  by  a 
low  partition  of  marble;  it  is  raised  one  step  from  the  level 
of  the  church.  The  floor  is  decorated  with  mosaics. 

The  Church  of  St.  Sophia  was  consecrated  May  330.  It 
is  built  like  a Grecian  cross.  It  cost  one  million  dollars. 
Besides  this,  Constantine  built  25  churches.  The  cathedral 
at  Pisa,  in  Italy,  was  built  TOO  years  after  that  of  St.  So- 
phia. Its  plan  is  the  Latin  cross.  The  length  is  304  feet, 
and  the  width  10T ; the  transverse  branch  is  234  feet  by  55 
feet  in  width.  A detailed  account  we  cannot  give — a mere 
sketch  is  all  we  promised. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

The  Architecture  of  Germany,  France,  and  Normandy. 

The  sacredness  of  religious  edifices  seems  to  have  protected 
them  from  demolition  and  the  hand  of  the  destroyer. 

Germany  lays  claim  to  churches  of  antiquity  superior  to 
those  of  any  other  country  this  side  of  the  Alps:  those  exist- 
ing of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  are  very  important 
in  the  history  of  the  art,  and  testify  extraordinary  solidity 
and  magnificence.  Such  are  the  churches  of  Spire,  Mentz, 
and  Worms.  That  of  Spire  was  founded  by  Conrad,  in  1030 ; 
the  east  end  of  that  at  Worms,  still  earlier,  was  commenced 
in  996,  and  the  building  was  consecrated  in  1016;  the  oldest 
part  of  the  cathedral  of  Mentz  is  said  to  be  of  the  date 
of  Archbishop  Willigris,  between  978  and  1009. 

One  of  the  most  instructive  as  well  as  the  most  ancient 
of  these  churches  is  that  at  W orms,  now  in  a very  perfect  state 
of  preservation.  The  plan  is  strongly  distinguished  by  the 
cross;  the  piers  separating  the  nave  from  the  aisles  are  square. 


72 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


with  columns  at  alternate  piers,  to  carry  the  stone  vaulting, 
which  embraces  two  compartments  of  the  lateral  arches  be- 
tween each  groin  or  rib.  The  east  end  is  square  on  the  face 
externally,  but  semicircular  inside ; thus  retaining  one  of  the 
principal  features  of  the  Romanesque  basilicse.  On  each  side 
are  circular  turrets  containing  staircases,  and  corresponding 
with  two  at  the  west  end,  although  of  somewhat  larger 
dimensions.  The  entrances  are  in  the  north  and  south  sides, 
and  nearer  the  transepts  than  the  west  end.  This  arrange- 
ment is  quite  at  variance  with  all  preceding  buildings;  as 
instead  of  the  three  doorways  at  the  west  front,  there  is  an 
apsis  of  the  form  of  three  sides  of  an  octagon,  which  is  used 
as  a chapel.  At  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  transepts 
springs  an  octagonal  tower,  which  is  scarcely  higher  than  the 
nave  roof,  and  covered  with  a cupola : the  turrets  are  carried  to 
a great  height,  and  terminate  conically.  This  church,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  same  date,  is  vaulted  with  stone  throughout, 
which  caused  the  introduction  of  the  shaft  on  the  face  of  the 
piers,  and  is  one  great  deviation  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
Roman  basilicas,  which  were  covered  with  horizontal  ceilings; 
or  else  the  wooden  roofs  were  left  exposed,  which  rested  on  the 
walls,  having  no  relation  vertically  to  the  substructure. 

The  church  of  St.  Castor,  at  Coblentz,  part  of  which  was 
built  in  the  eleventh  century,  is  likewise  executed  with  semi- 
circular arches,  which  spring  from  square  piers,  to  each  face 
of  which  a square  column  is  attached.  This  may  be  considered 
as  one  of  the  steps  leading  towards  the  clustered  columns, 
which  gradually  were  introduced  into  the  naves  of  all  churches 
throughout  the  western  part  of  Europe. 

The  early  German  churches,  although  differing  considerably 
from  each  other  in  their  general  plan,  still  retain  peculiarities 
that  are  not  to  be  seen  in  those  of  other  countries,  though 
erected  about  the  same  period,  or  rather  later.  The  octa- 
gonal form  of  the  apsides  and  turrets,  and  their  enrichments 
generally  retaining  a primitive  character,  made  their  Lom- 
bardic  origin  perceptible.  The  square  piers  which  support  the 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


73 

nave  arches  evince  a direct  departure  from  the  Italian  types; 
there  is  likewise  a prevalence  of  rectangular  faces  and  square- 
edged  projections.  This  general  simplicity  may  be  well  ac- 
counted for,  when  we  consider  that  the  chief  impressions  were 
received  from  Romanesque  examples,  which  were  simplified 
from  necessity,  as  there  was  great  deficiency  in  knowledge 
of  art,  although  no  inferiority  in  mechanical  skill. 

In  the  cathedral  of  Worms  we  find  the  pointed  arch,  which 
was  not  introduced  generally  until  a century  after  the  erection 
of  that  building ; therefore,  if  this  was  not  added  subsequently, 
it  confutes  many  of  the  theories  as  to  the  causes  and  dates 
of  its  introduction. 

The  church  of  Gelnhausen,  in  Suabia,  which  was  built  in 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
German  churches  in  which  a positive  change  of  style  is  per- 
ceptible throughout ; although  in  many  of  those  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  there  exists  deviations  from  the  unity 
of  the  designs  which  are  difficult  to  be  accounted  for. 

The  heads  of  the  windows,  instead  of  being  semicircular, 
are  of  the  lancet  form,  with  cusps,  and  differ  from  the  pro- 
portions before  adopted  by  being  long  and  narrow.  The 
arches  and  windows  in  the  nave  have  trefoiled  heads,  and 
the  windows  of  the  central  tower  possess  a marked  distinc- 
tion from  the  earlier  arrangements,  having  the  three  aper- 
tures with  trefoils  inscribed  in  a semicircular  top,  and  sepa- 
rated by  mullions. 

The  church  of  St.  Catherine  at  Oppenheim,  commenced 
in  1262,  resembles  in  plan  that  of  Worms,  being  in  the  form 
of  a Latin  cross,  and  having  semi-octagonal  chancels  at  the 
east  and  west  ends.  The  latter  is  of  a subsequent  date,  and 
was  not  consecrated  before  1439.  This  peculiarity  is  ob- 
servable in  several  other  churches  in  Germany:  the  entrances 
are  on  the  north  and  south  sides. 

The  cathedral  of  Strasburg,  which  was  begun  in  1227, 
and  brought  to  its  present  state  in  1439,  holds  the  first 
rank  among  the  Gothic  churches  of  the  Continent,  in  point 

7 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


U 

of  the  high  degree  of  enrichment  which  prevails  throughout. 
The  length  of  the  body  of  the  church  is  324  feet,  and  the 
height  of  the  nave  vault  is  98  feet.  The  western  facade 
is  divided  into  three  parts,  vertically,  by  buttresses  richly 
ornamented  with  canopies  and  statues.  The  three  entrances 
are  crowned  by  crocketed  gables,  and  the  diverging  sides  of 
the  doorways  are  completely  filled  with  niches  and  statues. 

This  cathedral  has  but  one  of  its  spires  completed,  which 
is  at  the  north-west  angle:  it  is  perforated  in  the  richest 
manner,  and  in  height  it  exceeds  any  other  church  in  Europe, 
being  414  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  cathedral  of  Cologne  was  one  of  magnificent  design, 
and  of  a symmetry  not  surpassed  by  any  of  the  best  works 
of  Greece  or  Rome.  The  site  was  the  ruins  of  a church 
built  by  Charlemagne.  Archbishop  Conrad  commenced  the 
church  in  1249.  The  length  was  over  500  feet;  the  width 
of  the  aisles  180  feet;  the  roofs  more  than  200  feet  high. 
The  western  towers  were  to  be  500  feet  high,  and  100  feet 
wide  at  the  base.  For  three  centuries  the  work,  by  spas- 
modic efforts,  was  extended ; but  the  building  was  never 
entirely  completed.  All  that  is  now  done  is  to  keep  it  in 
repair. 

The  German  cathedral  at  Ulm  was  commenced  in  1311. 
Its  length  is  416;  width,  166;  height,  141. 

Ratisbone  cathedral  was  built  in  1480. 

The  greatest  variety  of  forms,  both  in  traceries  and  orna- 
ments, prevails  throughout  most  of  the  larger  churches  of 
Germany  that  were  built  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Gothic 
era. 

The  buildings  of  France  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
were  like  those  of  Germany,  in  the  Byzantine  or  Romanesque 
styles,  and  decorated  with  a profusion  of  mosaic  and  other 
ornamental  work. 

The  invasion  of  the  Normans,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies, caused  the  destruction  of  most  of  the  ecclesiastical 
edifices,  After  Rollo  had  become  Duke  of  Normandy,  and 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


75 


embraced  the  Christian  faith,  he  vied  with  France  in  the 
erection  of  churches.  The  principles  of  the  architecture 
that  prevailed  in  both  countries  were  identical,  being  modi- 
fications of  the  Lombardic  styles,  and  were  characterized 
by  the  general  use  of  the  semi-circular  forms  in  arches  or 
windows. 

One  of  the  earliest  French  churches  that  presents  any 
features  that  require  our  notice,  is  that  of  St.  Germain  des 
Pres,  which  was  built  by  Abbot  Morard,  in  1014.  The 
nave  of  the  church  still  remains  in  its  primitive  state.  The 
capitals  of  the  columns  possess  much  of  the  character  of  the 
Corinthian  Order;  whilst  others  are  composed  of  birds  and 
griffins.  In  the  churches  of  Normandy,  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  are  direct  imitations  of  the  Corinthian  Order,  with 
the  exception  of  the  abaci. 

About  800  years  ago  the  large  cathedral  of  Chartres  and 
the  abbey  of  Cluny  of  France  were  built.  The  plan  is  cru- 
ciform. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  an  important 
change  took  place  in  the  architecture  of  the  western  parts  of 
Europe,  by  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch,  which  was 
used  instead  of  the  semicircular. 

Concerning  the  origin  of  the  pointed  arch  we  cannot 
treat.  By  some  it  is  supposed  that  it  was  used  in  Noah’s 
Ark — and  some  buildings  of  great  antiquity  in  the  east,  at 
Jerusalem  and  Cairo,  are  of  a pointed  form. 

Dr.  Milner  supposes  that  it 
arose  from  the  intersection  of 
semicircular  arches,  which  were 
frequently  introduced  on  the 
surface  of  the  walls  in  the  Nor- 
man Styles,  but  placed  there 
solely  for  ornament,  as  in  St.Botolph’s,  Colchester,  (England.) 

At  Castle  Acre  Priory  the  transition  is  apparent;  and  at 
Bristol  Cathedral  it  is  still  further  developed. 


IQ 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


At  St.  J ames’s, 

Bristol,  within  the 
interlacing  mould- 
ings, there  is  a lancet 
window,  the  arch  of 
which  is  struck  from, 
the  same  centres,  and 
follows  the  inside  lines.  In  the  above  instances  referred  to, 
the  intersecting  semicircular  windows  are  not  detached  from 
the  wall. 

In  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
erected  1180,  there  is  an  in- 
stance of  an  interlacing  arcade 
supported  by  columns  entirely 
disengaged  from  the  wall,  and 
from  its  construction  as  well 
as  its  form  may  be  considered 
as  a transition  between  the 
semicircular  and  the  pointed 
styles. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


n 


The  pointed  form  suggests  a greater  loftiness  and  elegance 
in  composition,  and  to  a certain  extent  the  principles  of 
arrangement  are  different:  these  again,  in  their  turn,  gradu- 
ally gave  place  to  others,  apparently  as  much  at  variance 
with  them  as  they  were  from  the  parent  source. 

The  Editor  differs  from  his  Author  and  agrees  with  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  that  the  Saracens  of  the  East,  or  the 
Moors  of  Spain  were  the  originators  of  the  pointed  style  of 
Architecture. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

• Syrian , Persian,  and  Persepolitan  Architecture. 

The  ancient  edifices  of  Syria  were  undoubtedly  of  a cha- 
racter very  similar  to  the  Egyptians,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  intercourse  that  existed  between  these  nations.  There 
are  no  monuments  left  us  of  Phoenician  architecture. 

Solomon’s  Temple  was  built  by  an  architect  and  work- 
men from  Tyre.  The  plan  was  a paralellogram  of  about 
109 \ feet  by  36  feet;  in  front  was  a pronaos  or  portico  ex- 
tending along  the  whole  width  of  the  temple,  the  depth  of 
which  was  half  its  extent.  The  cell  or  main  body  of  the 
building  was  54  J feet  deep,  and  the  sanctuary  beyond  36J. 
The  height  of  the  sanctuary  was  36J  feet,  the  middle  part 
or  cell  54 J,  and  the  portico  36J.  The  body  temple  was  sur- 
rounded by  three  tiers  of  Chambers,  to  which  there  was  an 
ascent  by  stairs,  and  the  central  space  was  a court  open  to 
the  sky.  Bells  were  suspended  about  the  temple  and  were 
probably  intended  by  the  sound  they  produced  on  being 
agitated  by  the  wind,  to  keep  off  the  birds  from  the  conse- 
crated edifice.  The  ends  of  the  beams  of  the  upper  floors 
rested  on  stone  corbels,  and  were'not  inserted  into  the  walls, 
which  were  lined  with  cedar,  on  which  were  figures  of  che- 
rubim made  of  wood  and  covered  with  gold;  these  were  ten 
cubits  high,  and  their  expanded  wings  extended  across  the 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


18 

width  of  the  temple.  In  front  of  the  portico  were  two  pil- 
lars of  brass,  each  five  cubits  high,  and  nearly  four  cubits  in 
diameter.  The  chapiters  or  capitals,  also  of  brass,  were  five 
cubits  high ; one  was  ornamented  with  lilies  on  a net-work 
ground,  the  other  with  pomegranates. 

The  “ House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon”  was  larger  still 
than  the  temple. 

Persia  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  empires 
of  Asia  from  a very  early  period  until  the  invasion  of  the 
country  by  Alexander  the  Great,  330  b.c.,  during  which 
time  the  art  of  building  must  have  been  practised  to  a great 
extent.  But  alas!  “ time  the  destroyer”  has  left  nothing  but 
ruins  from  which  we  may  judge  of  its  former  splendor.  On 
the  great  fertile  plain  of  Merdasht  or  Istaker,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Farisistan,  are  the  ruins  of  the  city  of  Persepolis. 
The  ruins  are  1,200  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  600  feet 
from  east  to  west.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  site  of  a palace. 
There  are  other  ruins,  and  all  seem  to  indicate  that  some 
intimate  connection  must  have  existed  between  the  architects 
of  Persia  and  Egypt. 

A great  resemblance  exists  between  the  present  architec- 
ture of  Persia  and  other  Mahommedan  countries,  and  it 
therefore  requires  no  description  of  its  peculiarities. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Ancient  Architecture  of  India. 

Of  all  the  remains  of  ancient  buildings  that  have  attracted 
the  curiosity  or  attention  of  the  traveller  devoted  to  anti- 
quarian research,  none  have  been  investigated  with  less 
satisfaction  as  regards  their  history  or  chronology  than  those 
of  India. 

The  ancient  monuments  of  India  are  of  two  kinds,  the 
excavated  and  the  structural ; the  one  being  cut  out  of  the 
rocks,  while  the  others  are  erected  of  different  materials  in 


OF  ARCHITECTURE 


19 


the  usual  way.  The  former  were  made  by  the  Buddhists, 
a sect  whose  earliest  existence  dates  600  b.c. 

The  caves  consist  of  three  classes:  the  first  of  these  are 
Yihara,  or  monastery  caves,  the  earliest  of  which  are  natural 
caverns  slightly  improved  by  art,  appropriated  to  religious 
purposes:  those  which  followed  had  a verandah  opening  into 
the  cells  for  the  abodes  of  the  priests,  but  without  sanctu- 
aries or  images  of  any  kind.  The  simplest  form  of  these 
consists  of  merely  one  square  cell  and  a porch,  sometimes 
nearly  30  feet  in  length;  in  others  the  arrangement  is  ex- 
tended by  the  verandah  opening  into  a square  hall,  on  three 
sides  of  which  the  cells  are  placed.  Another  subdivision  of 
the  Yihara  caves  consists  in  the  enlargement  of  the  hall  and 
the  consequent  necessity  for  the  use  of  pillars.  In  these, 
besides  the  cells  there  was  always  a deep  recess  facing  the 
entrance,  in  which  the  statue  of  Buddah,  with  his  attendants, 
was  usually  placed;  thus  making  the  cave  not  only  an  abode 
for  the  priests,  but  a place  of  worship.  To  this  division  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  Buddhist  excavations  belong; 
those  at  Ajunta  are  the  finest,  though  good  specimens  exist 
at  Ellora  and  Salsette. 

The  second  class  consists  of  Buddhist  Chaitya  caves:  these 
must  be  considered  as  the  temples  or  churches,  and  one  or 
more  of  them  is  attached  to  every  set  of  caves  in  the  west  of 
India:  the  plan  and  arrangement  of  them  are  exactly  the 
same,  though  the  details  and  sculpture  vary  with  the  age  in 
which  they  were  erected.  These,  unlike  the  Yiharas,  seem 
to  have  taken  the  same  form  at  once,  as  is  seen  in  that  of 
Karli,  which  is  the  most  perfect,  and  believed  to  be  the  oldest 
in  India.  It  has  been  supposed  from  this  circumstance  that 
they  were  copies  of  the  interiors  of  structural  buildings, 
though  no  traces  of  such  buildings  exist  in  India,  Ceylon,  or 
beyond  the  Ganges.  In  all  these  caves  there  is  an  external 
porch,  or  music-gallery,  and  an  internal  gallery  over  the 
entrance;  the  centre  part  of  the  temple  is  surrounded  by  cir- 
cular or  octagonal  pillars  that  divide  it  from  the  aisles,  and 


80 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


are  carried  round  the  semicircular  part  at  the  farthest  end, 
and  which  may  be  considered  as  an  apsis:  the  whole  bears  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  arrangement  of  the  early  Norman 
churches.  The  nave  or  centre  part  is  twice  its  width,  and  is 
roofed  by  a wagon  vault;  the  roof  of  the  aisles  is  generally 
flat.  In  the  centre  of  the  semicircular  part  stands  the 
Daghopa,  in  part  of  which  there  is  always  a sculptured  niche 
containing  a figure  of  Buddha  and  his  attendants.  The  third 
class  consists  of  Brahmanical  caves,  many  of  which  have  a 
great  resemblance  to  the  Yihara,  though  the  arrangement  of 
the  pillars  and  the  position  of  the  sanctuary  are  in  no  instance 
the  same.  The  walls  are  nearly  always  covered  with  sculp- 
ture, while  the  Yiharas  are  generally  decorated  with  painting 
and  inscriptions.  The  finest  specimens  are  at  Elephanta  and 
Ellora ; others  are  to  be  found  in  the  island  of  Salsette,  near 
Bombay.  The  excavated  temple  at  Elephanta  is  130  feet 
long  by  110  feet  wide,  and  14  J in  height.  The  ceiling  is 
flat  and  supported  by  four  rows  of  columns  connected  by  a 
fascia,  or  simple  architrave:  the  columns  are  9 feet  high, 
standing  on  pedestals ; they  are  reeded  or  ribbed,  and  have 
projecting  capitals  of  a semicircular  form  in  profile,  from 
which  spring  the  brackets  of  the  ceiling.  Against  the  walls 
are  sculptured  colossal  human  figures  in  high  relief,  which 
differ  from  each  other  by  a variety  of  symbols,  representing 
the  attributes  of  the  deities  whom  they  worshipped.  At  the 
farthest  end  there  is  a square  recess,  supposed  to  be  the  sanc- 
tuary ; on  either  side  of  the  door  by  which  it  is  entered  there 
are  large  figures.  There  are  100  of  these  caves  three  stories 
high  cut  out  of  the  rock.  Some  are  150  feet  high.  The 
Buddhists  nearly  always  adopted  the  Arch  form  in  their 
Chaitya  temples. 

There  is  still  another  class  of  excavations  cut  out  of  rock ; 
they  are  of  one  block  of  stone.  These  temples  have  the 
appearance  of  standing  in  pits,  as  all  the  surrounding  parts 
have  been  cut  away.  The  most  remarkable  of  this  class  is 
the  Kylas  and  Ellora,  which  is  one  of  the  most  modern  spe- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


81 


cimens  of  excavations  in  India,  built  about  900  a. d.  It  is 
400  feet  long  by  241  wide,  and  is  at  the  north-east  angle 
104  feet  deep;  round  the  sides  of  this  area  is  a cloister  sup- 
ported on  square  pillars,  which  are  covered  with  subjects 
from  the  Indian  mythology.  The  centre  part  is  occupied 
with  the  entrance  pavilion,  the  chapel  of  Nandi  and  the 
grand  temple  and  sanctuary,  round  which  are  balconies  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  by  the  musicians  on  solemn  occa- 
sions. The  approach  to  it  is  by  a bridge,  from  which  you 
descend  to  the  chapel  by  nine  steps;  and,  on  passing  on  over 
another  bridge,  you  arrive  at  staircases  on  either  side,  which 
lead  to  the  inner  court,  the  temple  and  cloisters.  On  each 
side  of  the  bridge  are  gigantic  representations  of  elephants, 
and  beyond  are  two  richly  carved  pillars  or  obelisks. 

The  upper  parts  of  the  buildings  were  supported  on  square 
piers  or  pillars,  and  from  all  sides  of  their  capitals  brackets 
projected  equal  to  their  width,  and  leaving  generally  a space 
equal  to  three  diameters  between  their  greatest  projection, 
thus  leaving  only  one-half  of  the  whole  length  of  the  archi- 
trave unsupported;  but  when  a greater  space  was  required, 
a succession  of  projecting  brackets  placed  above  each  other 
was  adopted,  sometimes  meeting  in  the  centre,  thus  having 
the  effect  of  a horizontal  arch.  The  effect  of  this  is  un- 
doubtedly pleasing,  as  the  projecting  brackets  on  all  sides  of 
the  square  capital  produce  in  perspective  a variety  of  lines, 
and  great  play  of  light  and  shade. 

One  of  the  oldest  structural  monuments  or  temples  is  that 
of  Bobaneswar,  which  is  60  feet  square  at  the  base  and  180 
feet  in  height. 

In  plan  the  Indian  temples  or  pagodas  are  square;  the  only 
light  that  is  admitted  is  by  the  door. 

One  of  the  largest  Hindoo  temples  is  that  at  Chidamba- 
ram, on  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  from  its  dimensions 
and  antiquity  is  held  in  high  veneration.  This  cluster  of 
temples  is  a rectangular  space  1332  feet  in  length  by  936  in 
width,  by  walls  30  feet  in  height.  This  area  contains  a 


82 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


variety  of  temples,  much  decorated  with  sculpture  of  figures 
and  ornaments  more  curious  than  beautiful;  these  are  con- 
nected by  extensive  colonnades  and  porticoes.  Pyramids 
stand  over  the  entrance  of  the  outer  enclosures,  and  consist 
of  several  floors. 

There  are  many  other  pagodas  of  large  dimensions. 

Among  the  interesting  works  of  the  Hindoos  are  the 
Bunds  or  dams,  which  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  intercept- 
ing the  course  of  small  rivers,  so  as  to  form  an  artificial  lake 
for  the  purpose  of  irrigation:  on  these  dams,  which  are  con- 
structed of  stone,  palaces  and  temples  are  generally  placed, 
and  between  them  are  very  broad  flights  of  steps  leading 
down  to  the  water,  which  are  ornamented  frequently  with 
figures  of  elephants,  and  were  used  as  fountains.  That  at 
Raj-Sing,  at  Oddypore,  is  386  paces  in  length,  and  was  built 
in  1653. 

The  Indian  styles,  whatever  their  defects  may  be,  have 
the  merit  of  being  original ; for  there  can  be  little  doubt  but 
that  they  were  invented  in  the  country  where  we  now  find 
them. 


CHAPTER  Till. 

Chinese  Architecture . 

The  architecture  of  China,  unlike  that  of  other  nations, 
has  retained  its  particular  character  during  all  times  without 
any  mutation.  Their  native  historians  ascribe  the  origin  of 
building  to  their  Emperor  Fou-Hi,  who  first  taught  his  sub- 
jects that  art  about  368  b.c.  In  the  year  246  a.d.,  the  Em- 
peror Tsin-Chi-Hoang-Ti  demolished  all  the  buildings  of  im- 
portance, so  as  to  remove  all  records  of  the  grandeur  and 
power  of  his  predecessors:  except  a few  temples  and  tombs 
in  the  mountains,  which  are  supposed  to  be  of  a prior  date, 
nothing  remains  of  a higher  antiquity. 

The  type  of  all  Chinese  buildings,  whether  they  are  used 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


83 


for  tlie  purposes  of  religion,  or  as  residences,  is  undoubtedly 
a tent ; and  the  convex  form  of  their  roofs  shows  that  they 
are  a copy  of  those  made  of  more  pliant  materials,  sustained 
at  different  points  from  brackets  at  the  top  of  vertical  sup- 
ports. The  material  generally  employed  is  wood  ; that  most 
in  use  is  the  nan-mon,  which  is  said  to  last  more  than  a 
thousand  years  : stone,  marble,  bricks,  bamboo,  and  porce- 
lain tiles,  are  also  used. 

In  China,  improvement  seems  to  have  been  considered  an 
innovation  and  direct  breach  of  the  laws,  which  are  looked 
upon  as  something  more  than  human  ordinances,  from  their 
supposed  perfection  and  antiquity. 

One  great  hindrance  to  any  advance  in  architecture  is 
caused  by  the  construction  of  their  private  houses  and 
public  buildings  being  subject  to  the  restrictions  of  public 
functionaries  (who  may  be  properly  designated  district  sur- 
veyors), backed  by  most  arbitrary  laws  : under  their  super- 
vision every  one  is  obliged  to  build  according  to  his  rank, 
and  for  every  house  a certain  size  as  well  as  details  are  fixed. 
These  officers  seem  to  govern  the  arts  in  China,  and  the  laws 
regulate  the  magnitude  and  arrangement  of  residences  of  the 
various  degrees, — for  a noble  family,  for  a president  of  a 
tribune,  for  a mandarin,  and  for  all  classes  who  can  afford 
the  luxury  of  a house.  The  size  of  public  buildings  likewise 
comes  under  their  management.  The  merchant,  whatever 
the  amount  of  his  wealth  may  be,  is  compelled  by  this 
regulation  to  restrict  the  dimensions  and  decorations  of  his 
house  to  his  exact  grade  or  standing  : this  refers  only  to  the 
external  part  of  his  dwelling  ; the  interior  arrangements  are 
unfettered.  According  to  these  prohibitions  (for  they  cannot 
be  considered  in  any  other  light),  the  level  of  the  ground 
floor,  the  length  of  the  frontage  of  the  building,  and  the 
height  of  the  roofs,  are  in  an  advancing  scale  from  the  citizen 
to  the  emperor,  and  their  limits  must  be  attended  to  without 
appeal. 

The  buildings  generally  are  only  of  one  story  ; and  in  Pekin 


84 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


the  shopkeepers  are  obliged  to  sleep  under  their  pent-houses 
in  the  open  air  in  summer.  One  reason  perhaps  justifies 
their  houses  generally  being  only  of  one  story,  which  is  the 
slightness  of  their  construction,  and  which  renders  them 
incapable  of  bearing  any  thing  above  them.  The  general 
character  and  arrangement  of  the  Chinese  houses  is  so  well 
understood,  that  no  object  will  be  gained  by  enlarging  on  the 
subject.  In  every  part,  nothing  is  seen  but  a succession  of 
combinations  of  frame-work  and  trellises  painted  in  all  the 
primitive  colors,  which  has  caused  the  impression  that  the 
Chinese  houses  bear  a greater  affinity  to  bird-cages  than  to 
any  thing  under  the  sun  : the  form  of  some  of  their  doors  is 
sometimes  circular  or  octagonal,  and  tends  to  strengthen  it, 
as  in  no  other  country  are  apertures  of  that  form  used  for 
entrances. 

The  palaces  resemble  a number  of  tents  united  ; and  the 
highest  pagodas  are  nothing  else  than  a succession  of  them 
piled  on  one  another,  instead  of  side  by  side  : in  short,  from 
the  smallest  village  to  the  imperial  residence  at  Pekin,  no 
other  form  but  that  of  a permanent  encampment  prevails. 
Lord  Macartney,  who  travelled  the  whole  empire  from  the 
farthest  part  of  the  great  wall  to  Canton,  observed  that  there 
was  but  very  little  variation  in  the  buildings  to  be  seen. 

Amidst  the  substantial  works  of  the  Chinese  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  bridges  : that  at  Loyau,  in  the  province 
of  Fod-Kien,  is  composed  of  250  piers  built  with  very  large 
stones,  which  support  enormous  granite  lintels,  or  stones 
placed  horizontally  ; these  are  crowned  by  a balustrade.  A 
considerable  number  of  bridges  have  been  constructed  in 
China,  and  they  are  considered  to  be  works  of  great  magni- 
tude and  importance.  To  the  Chinese  is  attributed  the  earliest 
application  of  the  suspension  bridge,  which  has  been  so  much 
adopted  in  modern  times  in  situations  where  no  other  means 
of  passage  could  have  been  applied. 

The  temples  of  the  Chinese  are  generally  small,  and 
consist  of  only  one  chamber,  which  is  the  sanctuary  of  their 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


85 


Idols  ; on  the  outside  is  a gallery  : others  stand  in  a court 
surrounded  by  corridors.  In  some  instances  the  interior  is 
spacious  : that  at  Ho-Nang,  near  Canton,  is  590  feet  in 
length  by  250  in  width  ; the  temple  is  constructed  of  wood, 
and  covered  with  painted  and  varnished  porcelain.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  Pekin  and  its  environs  contain  nearly 
10,000  mido  or  idol  temples,  some  of  which  are  superior  in 
decoration  to  those  at  Canton. 

Amongst  the  buildings  that  are  peculiar  to  China  are  the 
pagodas,  or  towers  of  from  six  to  ten  stories,  diminishing 
upwards  : the  projecting  top  of  each  story  presents  the  con- 
cave form  before  referred  to  ; and  the  plan  of  those  buildings 
is  generally  an  octagon.  The  most  celebrated  is  that  of 
Nang-King,  which  is  called  “ the  tower  of  porcelain  it  is 
40  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  200  feet  in  height  ; in  the 
centre  is  a staircase  connecting  each  stage,  and  which  is 
lighted  by  windows  on  four  sides  : the  openings  do  not  occur 
over  each  other,  but  in  alternate  stories  ; the  whole  is  cased 
with  porcelain.  The  age  of  this  pagoda  is  little  more  than 
three  centuries. 

Commemorative  buildings  and  triumphal  arches  or  doors 
are  very  numerous  throughout  China  : they  are  placed  at  the 
entrances  of  streets  as  well  as  before  principal  buildings  ; 
the  better  class  of  which  consist  of  a central  and  two  side 
openings  : the  lower  part  is  generally  of  stone,  without  any 
mouldings  ; the  upper  part  is  of  wood,  and  supported  on 
horizontal  lintels,  the  constructive  arch  being  as  little  known 
in  China  as  in  other  Eastern  nations. 

The  great  wall,  which  extends  for  1500  miles,  has  perhaps 
caused  a much  higher  opinion  to  be  formed  of  the  monuments 
of  the  Chinese  than  a careful  survey  justifies.  It  is  (with  an 
exception  in  favor  of  their  bridges)  the  only  work  of  any 
importance  that  can  give  the  Chinese  any  position  as  a con- 
structive people.*  It  consists  of  an  earthen  mound  faced  by 


* From  the  architecture  as  well  as  the  ornamental  works,  the  impression  is  con- 
veyed that  mechanical  skill  and  imitation  are  the  only  faculties  that  are  possessed 

8 


86 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


walls  of  brick  and  masonry  ; its  total  height  is  20  feet.  The 
platform  on  the  top  is  15  feet  broad,  and  increases  to  25  feet 
at  the  base  of  the  wall  ; at  intervals  of  200  paces  are  towers 
of  40  feet  square,  which  diminish  to  30  feet  at  the  top  ; their 
height  in  some  places  is  31  feet,  in  others  48.  This  wall, 
which  commences  in  the  sea  to  the  east  of  Pekin,  extends 
along  the  frontiers  of  their  provinces,  over  rivers,  mountains, 
villages,  and  often  in  places  that  are  of  themselves  protections 
from  any  hostile  invasion  : it  engaged  a million  of  persons 
for  ten  years  in  its  erection.* * 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

Arabian , Saracenic , or  Moorish  Architecture . 

In  consequence  of  the  very  few  examples  remaining,  we 
have  little  evidence  of  the  ancient  architecture  of  the  Ara- 
bians. The  Caaba  at  Mecca  is  the  only  existing  temple  in 
which  the  Arabians  worshiped  their  idols : this  was  so  much 
altered  by  Mahommed,  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  portions 
of  the  prior  erections. 

From  the  appearance  of  Mahommed,  a.d.  600,  commenced 
a style  of  architecture  which  extended  from  the  Indus  along 
the  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  and  to  a considerable  portion 

by  the  Chinese,  as  their  arts  seem  to  be  confined  to  servile  copies  of  the  works  of 
Nature,  without  any  feeling  of  composition  or  invention.  The  ancient  people 
must  indeed  have  been  widely  different  in  their  composition,  as  they  have  credit 
for  the  discovery  of  the  magnetic  compass  before  121  a.d.;  the  art  of  printing  in 
the  tenth  century  ; the  earliest  manufacture  of  silk  and  poreclain  ; and  last, 
though  not  least,  the  composition  of  gunpowder,  which  their  descendants  of  the 
present  day  use  to  so  little  purpose. 

* The  first  emperor  of  the  Tsin  dynasty  caused  this  wall  to  be  built  as  a protec- 
tion against  the  Tartars,  though  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  employment  of  a 
large  mass  of  people,  who  were  in  a state  of  excitement  at  his  tyranny,  was  the 
more  direct  cause  of  its  erection,  or  it  would  not  have  been  carried  over  places 
that  were  quite  inaccessible  to  an  enemy,  and  therefore  in  these  situations  useless. 
It  has  now  stood  nearly  sixteen  hundred  years.  He  ordered  all  the  books  of  the 
learned,  including  the  writings  of  Confucius,  to  be  cast  into  the  flames,  for  the 
same  reason  that  caused  the  destruction  of  all  the  principal  existing  buildings. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


87 


of  Spain.  In  the  latter  country  it  attained  its  greatest 
excellence. 

The  mosque  which  was  built  at  Jerusalem  by  Omar,  the 
second  caliph,  about  a.d.  640,  is  suppoted  to  have  been  the 
first  of  their  erections  beyond  the  limits  of  Arabia.  Of  the 
nature  of  this  edifice  we  are  ignorant,  in  consequence  of  the 
numerous  additions  made  to  it  at  subsequent  periods.  When 
Damascus  became  the  seat  of  the  empire,  it  wTas  considerably 
improved;  and  among  its  splendid  buildings  was  the  cele- 
brated mosque  founded  by  Alwalid  II.  In  the  year  a.  d. 
762,  the  foundations  of  Bagdad  were  laid;  and  this  city 
remained  the  imperial  seat  for  500  years.  The  magnifi- 
cence of  the  palace  of  the  caliphs  could  only  be  exceeded  by 
that  of  the  Persian  kings;  and  the  pious  and  charitable 
works  of  those  days  have  never  been  equalled,  as  water  cis- 
terns and  caravanseras  were  built  along  several  hundred 
miles  of  road. 

Nearly  all  the  remains  of  the  ancient  architecture  of  the 
Eastern  Saracens  are  the  mosques  at  Mecca  and  Jerusalem: 
to  these  may  be  added  the  castle  of  Cairo,  and  the  ruins  of 
the  hall  of  Joseph. 

The  most  splendid  specimens  of  Arabian  or  Saracenic 
architecture  are  to  be  found  in  Spain,  of  which  the  most 
ancient  is  the  mosque  at  Cordova,  begun  in  780  by  Abd-el- 
rahman,  then  king  of  this  part  of  the  Moorish  dominions. 
It  was  erected  within  the  first  century  after  the  Moors  had 
established  themselves  in  Spain.*  It  is  an  insulated  paral- 
lelogram of  620  feet  in  length  by  420  in  breadth,  and  is 
divided  into  two  parts;  one  of  them  is  an  open  court,  in 
which  worshipers  performed  their  ablutions  before  entering 
into  the  body  of  the  temple:  on  three  sides  theje  is  a colon- 
nade 25  feet  wide,  and  on  the  other  are  the  several  doors 

* The  Moors,  under  Musa  Ibn  Nosseyr,  the  viceroy  of  the  northern  part  of  Africa, 
landed  in  the  south  of  Spain  a.d.  711,  a.  h.  89;  and  within  two  months,  Cordova, 
Granada,  Jaen,  Malaga,  and  Toledo,  then  the  capital  of  Spain,  were  reduced,  or 
opened  their  gates  to  the  conquerors.  The  mosque  of  Cordova  was  finished  by 
Hisham,  a.d.  791. 


88 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


communicating  with  the  mosque.  This  consists  of  nineteen 
naves  divided  by  seventeen  rows  of  columns : thus  the  interior 
presents  an  appearance  of  a forest  of  columns  composed  of 
jasper  and  other  marbles;  they  are  18  inches  in  diameter, 
and  surmounted  by  capitals  which  bear  a strong  resemblance 
to  the  Corinthian  and  composite  orders;*  these  are  connected 
by  segmental  arches.  The  ceilings  are  of  wood,  painted ; the 
enrichments  are  of  stucco,  also  painted  in  various  colors, 
decorated  with  legends  and  occasionally  gilt.  After  the 
conquest  of  the  city  by  San  Ferdinand,  in  1238,  the  mosque 
was  converted  into  a cathedral;  and  the  character  has  since 
been  gratly  injured  by  erections  that  were  necessary  for  its 
adaptation  to  the  service  of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  most  perfect  example  existing,  that  can  convey  an  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  sumptuousness  of  ornament  and  en- 
richment can  be  carried,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Alhambra,  the 
residence  of  the  Moorish  kings  of  Granada,  erected  between 
the  years  a.d.  1240  and  1348.  In  this  there  are  no  traces 
of  art  peculiar  to  any  other  nation;  the  composition  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  ornaments  being  arranged  with  consummate 
skill.  To  attempt  a short  description  of  this  model  of  pure 
Arabian  architecture  would  only  be  an  injustice  to  it,  as  no 
notion  would  thereby  be  conveyed  of  this  extraordinary 
work ; we  therefore  can  only  remark,  that  every  part  of  the 
walls  and  ceilings  is  covered  with  a mass  of  ornament  en- 
riched with  gold  and  the  most  brilliant  colors,  and  which 
bears  the  strongest  evidence  of  the  high  degree  of  refinement 
and  luxury  at  which  the  Moors  had  arrived  prior  to  their 
overthrow. f The  whole  of  the  ornaments  are  composed  of 

* These  were  probably  obtained  from  some  Roman  buildings  that  existed  in  the 
neighbourhood,  as  some  of  them  have  bases,  so  as  to  bring  them  to  the  required 
height,  while  others,  which  were  too  short,  were  lengthened  by  giving  them  taU 
capitals.  In  this  building  there  are  upwards  of  900  columns. 

■j-  For  a full  description,  with  views  and  the  details  represented  in  their  original 
colors,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  work  published  by  Mr.  Owen  Jones,  which  is 
truly  worthy  of  the  magnificence  that  it  illustrates;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  lhat 
it  has  not  received  sufficient  'patronage  to  reimburse  him.  His  primr'pal  remune- 
ration must  be  the  conviction  that  he  has  produced  that  which  is  unequalled  in 
execution  by  any  thing  that  has  preceded  it. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


89 


stucco;  and  it  has  been  observed,  that  no  nation  has  con- 
structed so  many  magnificent  buildings  without  having 
recourse  to  the  quarry. 

Moorish  architecture  has  several  kinds  of  arches:  the 
horse-shoe  form,  having  the  centre  raised  above  the  spring  of 
the  curve,  which  likewise  diminishes  in  width ; the  pointed 
arch,  in  which,  likewise,  the  greatest  width  is  above  the  im- 
post or  spring  from  which  the  curve  commences.  Some  of 
these  arches  contain  on  the  inside  a succession  of  small  cusps 
of  a segmental  form.  The  next  example  is  that  of  the 
cuspid  arch,  strictly  so  termed,  the  outline  being  produced 
by  intersecting  semicircles,  very  similar  to  the  trefoil  heads 
of  Gothic  windows,  wdth  the  exception  that  they  are  not 
circumscribed  by  a continuous  arch.  Another  example  in 
the  Court  of  Lions  in  the  Alhambra,  it  being  circle  headed 
and  stilted  and  considerably  more  than  a semicircle : the  part 
below  the  centre  of  the  curve  is  vertical,  and  rests  on  small 
corbels  that  are  fixed  against  panels  wider  than  the  slender 
pillars  that  support  them. 

The  style  is  noted  for  its  extremely  slender  proportions 
and  for  its  fanciful  and  diverse  character. 

Among  the  features  of  this  style  is  the  honeycomb,  fret- 
work, or  pendants,  which  compose  the  ceilings  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  later  dates.  It  is  a cone-shaped  covering,  but 
ornated  with  a multiplicity  of  projecting  forms,  which  ren- 
der its  appearance  at  first  perplexing ; but,  like  the  mosaics, 
it  is  extremely  simple  in  principle. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Druidical,  Celtic,  and  Anglo-Roman  Architecture. 

The  earliest  remains  of  a structural  nature  are  the  un- 
hewn stones  which,  in  various  forms,  are  fojind  in  different 
parts  of  the  island.  The  introduction  of  those  in  the  south- 
ern parts  are  chiefly  attributed  to  the  Phoenicians,  or  Ca- 


90 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


naanites  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  who  were  the  most  expert 
sailors  of  antiquity,  and  maintained  a commerce  with  the 
southern  parts  of  England. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  their  frequent  voyages  suggested 
the  idea  of  planting  a colony  in  this  part  of  Britain,  and 
that  they  then  introduced  the  custom  of  erecting  gigantic 
stones,  which  had  been  practised  in  Asia.  These  erections 
are  varied,  and  may  be  classed  as  follows:  1,  the  single  stone 
or  obelisk;  2,  circles  of  stones  of  different  numbers;  3,  sa- 
crificial stones;  4,  cromlechs  and  cairns;  5,  logan  stones;  6, 
tolmen,  or  colossal  stones. 

The  most  remarkable  of  these  monuments  is  on  Salisbury 
Plain,  in  Wiltshire,  which  has  been  generally  considered  as 
a Druidical-or  Celtic  work.  It  consists  of  concentric  circles 
of  large  stones,  placed  upright  in  the  ground  like  pillars, 
with  another  large  stone  resting  upon  them  as  an  architrave 
or  lintel,  which  is  secured  by  mortices  and  tenons;  thus 
indicating  a regular  principle  of  construction,  although  the 
stones  themselves  are  not  squared. 

The  earliest  habitations  of  the  Britons  were  of  a circular 
form,  and  composed  of  wicker  filled  in  with  clay,  and  some- 
times placed  upon  foundations  of  stone ; although  caves  were 
much  used  at  the  same  time. 

The  erection  of  solid  buildings  in  England  dates  from  the 
invasion  of  Julius  Caesar,  in  the  year  55  b.  c.  Quite  an  impe- 
tus was  given  to  the  building  propensities  of  the  people,  and 
in  the  third  century  Britain  was  noted  for  the  number  and 
skill  of  its  artificers.  After  the  departure  of  the  Homans, 
a.  d.  410,  architecture  declined. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Architecture  in  England, 

The  History  of  Agriculture  in  England  commences  with 
structures  of  unhewn  stone,  the  remains  of  which,  in  various 
forms,  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  island.  Their  in- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


91 


troduction  is  chiefly  attributed  to  the  Phoenicians  or  Canaan- 
ites  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  who  were  expert  sailors  and  main- 
tained a commerce  with  the  southern  parts  of  England. 

The  most  remarkable  of  their  monuments  is  Stonehenge, 
on  Salisbury  Plain,  in  Wiltshire.  It  consists  of  concentric 
circles  of  large  stones,  placed  upright  in  the  ground  like 
pillars,  with  another  large  stone  resting  upon  them  as  an 
architrave  or  lintel,  which  is  secured  by  mortices  and  tenons ; 
thus  indicating  a regular  principle  of  construction,  although 
the  stones  themselves  are  not  squared.  The  remains  at  Are- 
bury,  near  Silsbury  Hill,  are  merely  rude  masses  of  stone 
work  in  the  form  of  a circle,  with  smaller  detached  circles  of 
unhewn  stones  within  its  other  area. 

The  earliest  habitations  of  the  Britons  were  of  a circular 
form,  and  composed  of  wicker  filled  in  with  clay,  and  some- 
times placed  upon  foundations  of  stone. 

Prom  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar,  in  the  year  55  b.  c., 
may  be  dated  the  erection  of  solid  buildings — temples,  the- 
atres and  public  edifices  were  erected,  and  the  art  of  archi- 
tecture advanced  till  the  departure  of  the  Romans  in  410 
a.  d.  This  is  the  “ Druidical,  Celtic,  and  Anglo-Roman 
Architecture”  of  England. 

The  “ Anglo-Saxon”  Architecture  commenced  with  the 
arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  449  a.  d.  What  little  remained 
of  the  art  was  shortly  extinguished,  for  the  Saxons,  like 
the  inhabitants  of  the  other  parts  of  Germany,  were  to- 
tally ignorant  of  all  civilized  modes  of  living,  being  accus- 
tomed to  dwell  only  in  hovels,  built  in  the  rudest  manner 
with  branches  of  trees  and  reeds;  all  knowledge  of  build- 
ing, therefore,  seems  to  have  been  lost  for  nearly  two  cen- 
turies afterwards. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  Tth  century  the  art  of  building 
stone  edifices  was  revived,  and  many  churches  were  built 
“ after  the  Roman  manner,”  or  debased  Roman  style  then 
prevalent  in  Prance  and  Germany.  This  style  has  received 
the  title  of  Anglo-Saxon.  The  plans  of  the  churches  dif- 


92 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


fered  considerably,  and  must  have  been  regulated  by  their 
size.  Some  were  cruciform — in  fact  a goodly  portion  were. 
The  builders  used  to ...  construct  crypts  beneath  their  most 
celebrated  churches.  The  plans  of  the  smaller  churches  were 
generally  oblong.  The  towers  were  usually  placed  at  the 
west  end.  The  quoins  are  of  a description  known  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  style,  and  called  long  and  short  work,  from 
their  being  arranged  with  stones  of  equal  size,  placed  alter- 
nately in  a vertical  and  horizontal  position  upon  each  other, 
thus  bearing  resemblance  to  debased  rustic  work. 

The  heads  of  the  doorway  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  style  are 
either  triangular  or  semicircular;  the  latter  were  more  gene- 
rally used,  and  those  which  are  more  ancient  were  con- 
structed of  large  flat  bricks  or  tiles  placed  on  end,  and  the 
spaces  between,  which  are  nearly  equal  to  them  in  width, 
filled  in  with  coarse  rubble-work;  the  jambs  or  imposts  of 
the  arches  were  generally  of  stone.  The  mode  of  forming 
these  arches,  as  well  as  the  walls  in  which  tiles  were  intro- 
duced, either  in  horizontal  layers,  or  arranged  herring-bone 
fashion,  was  undoubtedly  copied  from  the  later  works  of  the 
Romans. 

The  triangular-arched  head  is  of  a later  date,  and  pos- 
sesses little  constructive  merit;  the  extreme  of  the  triangle 
rests  on  a plain  abacus,  the  impost  in  some  cases  projecting 
from  the  wall.  The  prevailing  character  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  style  is  massiveness,  with  only  the  occasional  intro- 
duction of  a moulding,  which  in  most  cases  consists  simply 
of  a square-faced  projection  with  a chamfer  or  splay  on  the 
upper  or  lower  edge;  the  sculpture  of  that  period  was  ex- 
tremely rude,  and  rarely  introduced. 

The  principal  religious  edifices  were  destroyed  on  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  country  by  the  Danes,  1012  a.  d. 

The  commencement  of  the  “ Anglo-Norman  Style ” is  dated 
from  the  Conquest  by  William,  in  1066  a.  d.  Churches  were 
built  so  rapidly  that  10  years  afterwards,  on  the  compilation 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


93 


of  the  Doomsday  Book,  It 00  were  recorded  as  then  being 
in  existence. 

The  Anglo-Norman  conventual  churches  were  cruciform  in 
plan,  with  a low  tower  rising  at  the  intersection  of  the  choir 
and  nave  with  the  transepts:  the  former,  as  in  the  case  of 
some  churches  in  Germany,  terminated  with  a semicircular 
apse.  Apsidal  eastern  terminations  were  frequently  appended 
to  the  chapels  attached  to  the  churches.  The  aisles  were 
continuous  throughout  the  choir  as  well  as  the  nave,  so  that 
on  solemn  occasions  the  whole  church  might  be  traversed  in 
' processions.  The  altar  was  generally  affixed  to  a low  rere- 
dos  screen  or  wall,  which  was  placed  between  the  eastern- 
most piers.  Above  the  aisles  that  extended  round  the  nave 
and  choir  was  a triform  which  communicated  with  chapels 
similar  to  those  below.  The  west  or  principal  front  was 
sometimes  flanked  with  towers,  in  addition  to  that  before 
named;  at  the  angles  of  the  transepts  and  porches  were 
generally  placed  massive  buttresses,  or  else  turrets  termi- 
nated by  conical  or  polygonical-shaped  cappings  or  pinnacles. 
In  the  smaller  churches,  the  plans  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  consisted  only  of  a nave  and  chancel, 
with  a low  square  tower  at  the  junction,  supported  by  bold 
semicircular  arches : in  these  the  apse  at  the  east  end  is  very 
frequently  introduced;  indeed  it  is  a distinctive  feature  of 
that  style  which  bears  the  name  of  Norman  or  Romanesque 
(derived  from  ancient  basilicas),  and  never  introduced  after 
the  style ‘which  we  immediately  received  from  the  Continent, 
namely,  the  semicircular-arched,  had  passed  away. 

The  Anglo-Norman  style  of  architecture  might  be  divided 
into  three  classes, — the  Primitive,  the  Enriched,  and  the 
Transition  : in  the  two  former  kinds,  the  principles  are 
identical,  although  the  mode  of  ornamentation  that  is  used, 
unless  considered  in  its  various  stages,  appears  to  be  the 
result  of  fresh  impressions  derived  from  some  foreign  source  : 
as  regards  the  latter,  it  explains  itself,  having  features  of  a 


94 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


somewhat  different  character,  which  were  the  germs  of  a 
style  totally  dissimilar  in  principle. 

The  Norman  style  embraces  the  very  plainest  as  well  as 
the  richest  specimens  of  work,  from  that  characterized  by 
the  low  square  and  circular  piers,  so  numerously  distributed 
about  the  country,  to  the  florid  decoration  with  which  many 
of  our  cathedrals  and  abbeys  are  embellished.  The  former 
of  these  exhibit  but  massive  and  clumsy  remains  of  the 
classical  principles,  but  they  display  a grandeur  and  solemnity 
of  appearance  from  the  solidity  of  masonry  and  smallness  of 
the  openings.  The  piers  in  the  earlier  buildings  were  either 
entirely  square,  or  else  a succession  of  receding  faces  crowned 
by  a plain  square  abacus,  the  lower  edge  of  which  was  cham- 
fered. Isolated  circular  columns  were  likewise  used  in  this 
country  shortly  after  the  Conquest,  as  at  the  chapel  of  the 
White  Tower,  London,  Great  Malvern  church,  and  the 
cathedrals  of  Gloucester,  Peterborough,  Durham,  and  Here- 
ford, * besides  several  conventual  and  collegiate  churches.  At 
the  later  periods,  portions  of  columns  were  attached  to  the 
square  piers  ; those  facing  the  nave  or  choir  were  carried  up 
to  the  clerestory  windows,  and  from  their  capitals  sprung  the 
ribs  of  the  groining  of  the  roof ; the  others  carried  a part 
of  the  mouldings  of  the  nave  arches,  as  in  Norwich  and 
Peterborough  cathedrals.  In  the  latest  instances,  the  square 
pier  is  entirely  discontinued,  and  the  columns  are  connected 
together  without  the  angular  pieces. 

The  arrangement  of  the  interior  compartments  of  the 
Norman  cathedrals  and  larger  churches  is  that  from  which 
nearly  all  others  of  subsequent  dates  were  copied ; it  consisted 
of  three  tiers  or  stages.  The  lower  or  larger  opening  was 
spanned  by  a simicircular  arch,  which  rested  on  the  piers 
before  described,  above  which  was  a horizontal  string-course  : 
in  the  second  story,  or  triforium,  were  two  smaller  arches, 
supported  in  the  centre  by  a slender  column  ; these  were 


* Fifteen  of  the  twenty-two  English  cathedrals  retain  parts  of  their  Norman 
erection,  either  in  the  crypts  or  superstructure. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


95 


enclosed  in  a larger  arch,  the  span  of  which  was  rather  less 
than  that  below  it  ; above  this  was  another  string-course  : 
in  the  third,  or  clerestory,  there  were  generally  three  arched 
openings  divided  by  columns,  that  in  the  centre  being  higher 
and  wider  than  the  others,  and  forming  either  the  window, 
or  an  opening  before  it,  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  These 
three  arches  generally  occupied  a space  equal  to  the  arch 
below  them,  and  were  enclosed  in  the  arch  springing  from  the 
shaft  which  formed  part  of  the  semi-circular  stone  groining 
with  which  the  larger  churches  were  usually  vaulted. 

In  all  the  Anglo-Norman  Churches,  the  western  and 
southern  doorway  seems  to  have  been  decorated  with  a profu- 
sion of  ornamental  mouldings  and  sculpture.  Many  of  the 
Norman  doorways  have  the  arch  heads  filled  up,  forming 
what  is  called  the  tympanum  ; this  is  frequently  adorned  by 
sculpture  of  the  Savior,  angels,  saints  or  animals. 

Another  peculiarity  of  this  style  is,  that  the  arch  is  the 
feature  on  which  the  greatest  amount  of  ornament  and 
enrichment  was  bestowed.  The  decorative  details  and 
moulding  of  this  style,  although  numerous  are  of  a peculiar 
description,  and  appear  to  have  been  worked  on  the  originally 
plain  surface  of  the  mason  ary,  and,  in  many  cases,  re-worked 
at  an  after  period  to  a greater  degree  of  richness  than  they 
originally  possessed.  The  cherson  or  zig-zag,  for  instance  is 
the  most  common  ; in  the  earlier  instances  its  form  is  little 
more  than  indented  on  the  plain  face  of  the  projection  or 
w'all ; afterwards  we  find  it  partially  beaded  ; then  double 
beaded  with  hollow  ; and  in  the  latest  examples  it  was  com- 
pletely cut  away,  and  standing  out  in  full  relief,  with  a 
second  series  of  mouldings  carved  on  the  backing.  There  is 
also  the  billet — the  pellet, — the  star — the  nail-head — and  the 
emballted  frette  mouldings. 

The  windows  of  this  style  were  usually  small  and  extremely 
simple,  having  no  mouldings  round  them,  but  only  a receding 
face  on  the  outside,  the  inside  being  splayed.  Towards  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  mouldings  and  columns 


96 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


were  introduced  in  the  jambs,  and  the  semi-circular  heads 
were  carved  with  the  zig-zag  and  other  enrichments  ; about 
the  year  1180  the  highest  degree  of  ornamentation  ever 
applied  to  Norman  art  was  arrived  at. 

The  Norman  style,  which  had  been  gradually  advancing, 
in  the  richness  of  its  arrangement  and  ornaments,  from  the 
period  of  its  introduction  into  this  country  up  to  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  began  from  that  time  to  evince  the 
germs  of  different  combinations  and  features,  which  were 
characterized  by  the  verticality  of  its  principles,  and  a change 
from  the  semi-circular  to  the  pointed  form  of  the  arch.  This 
has  been  called  the  Transition,  or  Semi-Norman  style,  as  in 
it  we  find  the  pointed  arch  in  its  incipient  state,  formed  by 
the  intersections  of  portions  of  a circle,  whilst  the  details 
and  accessories  remained  unaltered  : thus  was  the  pointed 
arch,  for  nearly  fifty  years,  completely  intermixed,  more  or 
less,  in  conjunction  with  the  pure  Norman  style,  without 
entirely  superseding  it,  until  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century. 
"We  have  already  drawn  the  attention  of  our  readers  to  some 
of  the  various  theories  respecting  the  direct  origin  of  the 
pointed  arch,  and  shall  therefore  offer  no  further  observations 
on  them,  but  merely  consider  this  prominent  feature  as  we 
find  it  introduced  in  our  buildings,  apparently  resulting  from 
new  combinations,  and  as  being  the  consequence,  and  not  the 
cause,  of  a new  style. 

The  Transition,  or  Semi-Norman  style,  which  lasted  during 
the  reigns  of  Henry  the  Second  and  Richard  the  First, 
evinced,  in  its  early  stages,  no  other  deviation  from  the 
Norman  than  that  of  the  arches  being  pointed  ; but  these 
were  frequently  introduced  in  situations  where  the  old  form 
was  actually  built  with  and  even  surmounting  them.  Thus 
we  find  them  in  the  choir  of  the  church  of  St.  Cross  Hamp- 
shire : the  lower  arches  here  are  pointed,  whilst  the  arcade 
above,  as  well  as  the  clerestory,  is  strictly  Norman  : the  same 
arrangement  exists  at  Malmsbury  abbey  church,  with  the 
exception  of  the  upper  story  having  been  built  nearly  two 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


91 


centuries  afterwards.  In  the  transept  of  Romsey  church,  at 
the  west  end  of  Croyland  abbey  church,  Lincolnshire,  and 
in  many  other  instances,  the  pointed  arch  is  placed  beneath 
the  semi-circular  ; and  this  has  not  been  an  after  alteration, 
but  Is  really  the  original  work.  The  span  of  the  arches  at 
this  time  became  greater,  the  columns  higher  and  less 
massive,  and  the  capitals  began  to  be  ornamented  with  a 
kind  of  foliage  terminating  in  a volute  or  bulbous  leaf.*  The 
columns  were  frequently  octagonal  in  form,  and  the  bases 
had  additional  mouldings  with  an  overl aping  ornament  at 
the  angles,  and  were  placed  upon  square  plinths. 

Although  the  alteration  of  the  arch  and  diminution  in  the 
massiveness  of  the  columns  were  at  first  the  only  indications 
of  a transition  from  the  style  of  the  Normans,  yet  other  pecu- 
liarities, which  followed  in  gradual  succession,  bear  testimony 
to  the  certain  progress  that  was  being  made  towards  a more 
ornate  and  lighter  style  of  architecture.  The  mouldings  were 
more  generally  beaded  and  less  massive,  yet  the  use  of  the 
zig-zag,  of-  various  forms,  was  still  retained.  The  columns 
of  the  doorways  were  frequently  banded  in  the  centre,  and 
placed  quite  free  in  the  receding  angles  and  splays. 

Examples  of  this  period  may  be  instanced  in  many  of  the 
Norman,  as  well  as  Early  Pointed  buildings  : the  great  west 
Tower  and  south  wing  of  Ely  cathedral  are  especially 
deserving  of  attention.  Perhaps  no  finer  specimen  than  this 
exists  in  the  kingdom  : the  pointed  arch,  the  trefoiled  head, 
and  other  features  of  the  next  period  in  this  example,  here 
just  begin  to  appear,  although  the  whole  aspect  is  decidedly 
Norman.  The  vastness  of  the  surfaces,  which  are  completely 
covered  by  arcading  and  sculpture,  both  within  and  without, 
from  the  ground  to  the  very  roofs,  is  almost  bewildering  to 
the  eye  : the  date  is  about  lltO.f  Buildwas  abbey,  Shrop- 
shire ; Malmsbury,  Kirkstall,  Fountains,  and  Croyland 
abbeys  ; the  churches  of  New  Shoreham  ; Rutland,  North- 

* The  eastern  part  of  Canterbury  cathedral  illustrates  these  peculiarities. 

f Paley’s  ‘Manual  of  Gothic,’  p.  68. 

9 


98 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


amptonshire  ; Walsoken,  Norfolk  ; Ketton,  Rutland;  Blox- 
ham,  Oxfordshire  ; Little  Snoring,  Norfolk  ; retain  portions 
of  the  work  of  this  date.  Trinity  chapel,  and  the  circular 
part  called  Becket’s  Crown,  Canterbury  cathedral,  built  a. 
d.  lit 5,  are  very  interesting  : St.  Joseph’s  chapel,  Glaston- 
bury, erected  at  this  period,  is  perhaps  the  richest  specimen 
now  remaining  of  the  Semi-Norman,  or  Transition  style,  and 
remarkable  for  the  profusion  and  beauty  of  its  sculptured 
detail,  as  well  as  the  close  resemblance  it  presents  in  many 
parts  to  the  succeeding  styles.* 

It  has  been  usual  to  date  the  introduction  of  the  Pointed, 
or  what  has  been  denominated  the  Early  English  style,*}'  to 
about  a.  d.  1200,  although  the  vertical  principles  from  which 
it  sprung  were  not  fully  developed  for  thirty  years  afterwards. 

The  lancet,  as  well  as  the  equilateral  shaped  arch,  were 
used  at  this  period.  The  mouldings  in  general  consist  of 
alternate  rounds  and  deep  cut-hollows,  producing  a strong 
effect  of  light  and  shade' : the  tooth  ornament  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  and  used  only  in  architecture  at  this  date. 

The  features  of  this  style  which  principally  distinguish  it 
from  all  others  are,  the  lancet  windows,  the  thin  isolated  and 
clustered  shafts,  the  buttresses  and  pinnacles,  the  foliage,  the 
mouldings,  and  the  sculptured  ornaments  and  figures  ; all  of 
which  must  be  studied  with  care  in  order  to  understand  and 
appreciate  fully  its  peculiarities,  and  will  be  found  generally 
to  determine  the  dates  of  the  churches.  The  windows  are 
of  various  kinds  in  the  early  period  : the  lancet  windows, 
long  and  narrow,  of  one  light,  were  most  frequently  used, 
with  merely  a small  splay  on  the  outside,  and  without  any 
label  moulding  ; afterwards  they  were  surmounted  by  labels, 
which,  being  continued  horizontally  from  window  to  window, 
formed  a string-course  between  them.  Two  lancet  windows 
under  a single  drip-stone  are  sometimes  met  with,  but  in  the 
most  beautiful  specimens  of  this  arrangement  the  jambs  and 

* Bloxam’s  Gothic. 

f Tfois,  as  well  as  the  Perpendicular,  or  Late  Pointed,  is  peculiar  to  our  country, 
ms  nothing  similar  is  to  be  found  in  any  buildings  abroad* 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


99 


the  pier  between  the  openings  are  ornamented  with  slender 
shafts,  crowned  by  moulded  capitals,  and  surmounted  by  the 
mouldings  of  the  arches,  over  which  are  moulded  double 
labels.  The  next  arrangement  is  that  of  a triplet,  or  a 
combination  of  three  windows  together,  that  in  the  centre 
being  higher,  and  in  some  cases  larger  than  those  at  the 
side  : the  arrangement  of  columns  in  front  of  the  piers  and 
on  the  jambs,  as  well  as  the  arch  and  label  mouldings,  is 
similar  to  the  last  noticed.  These  windows,  in  the  smaller 
parochial  churches,  are  most  frequently  placed  at  the  east 
end  of  the  chancels,  and  are  only  splayed,  or  very  slightly 
decorated  with  mouldings.  The  combination  that  next 
demands  our  attention,  in  consequence  of  its  evincing  the 
germs  of  another  class  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  by  its 
being  the  first  approximation  towards  the  introduction  of 
tracery  in  the  heads  of  windows,  is  that  in  which  a part  is 
pierced  over  a double  lancet  window,  comprised  within  a 
single  drip-stone.  Circular  windows  were  frequently  intro- 
duced during  the  prevalence  of  this  style,  and  were  inserted 
above  other  windows  within  the  angular  part  of  gables. 

The  doorways  of  this  style  vary  considerably  both  in  form 
and  in  the  arrangements  of  the  arch  mouldings  and  the  sup- 
porting columns  : in  some  cases  the  columns  are  single  de- 
tached shafts,  placed  in  a receding  angle4  whilst  in  others  we 
find  them  in  three  or  four  receding  spaces,  and  sometimes 
connected  by  bands  or  otherwise  moulded  : the  upper  mould- 
ings of  the  capitals  were  mostly  continuous,  and  from  them 
sprung  assemblages  of  small  bead  and  hollow  mouldings,  in 
which  the  tooth  ornament  was  frequently  introduced.  In  the 
cathedrals  and  large  conventual  churches  we  meet  with  double 
doorways,  divided  by  clustered  columns  or  ornamented  piers, 
and  enclosed  by  a two-centred  arch  ; the  space  above  the 
openings  being  filled  either  with  sculptured  figures  and 
ornaments,  or  else  by  moulded  quatrefoiled  tracery.  In  some 
of  these  the  heads  of  the  openings  are  cinquefoiled,  and 
richly  decorated  with  mouldings  and  sculpture. 


100 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


The  pillars  usually  consist  of  small  shafts  (often  of  Purbeck 
marble),  arranged  round  a circular  pier,  and  connected  by  a 
band  of  mouldings  at  half  the  height  of  the  shafts,  and  at 
the  capitals  and  bases  : others  of  different  kinds  are  to  be 
found  ; a circular  or  octagonal  pillar  is  common  in  country 
churches,  which  is  crowned  by  moulded  capitals,  in  which  the 
nail-head  and  tooth  ornaments,  and  also  the  rich  flowing 
foliage  of  that  style,  are  used.  The  buttresses  of  this  date 
were  often  very  prominent,  and  are  frequently  carried,  with 
occasional  weatherings,  to  the  tops  of  the  parapets,  and 
terminated  either  by  high  pyramidical  cappings,  or  else  by 
acutely  pointed  pediments.  Buttresses  at  this  period  were 
seldom  placed  diaganolly  at  the  angles  of  the  buildings, 
although  such  disposition  in  the  succeeding  style  was  very 
general.  The  angles  of  the  buttresses  were  frequently 
chamfered,  or  else  small  shafts,  not  projecting  beyond  the 
face,  were  introduced.  The  carved  foliage  is  very  remarka- 
ble for  boldness  of  effect,  and  was  much  used  in  capitals, 
brackets,  bosses,  crockets,  and  spandrils;  it  was  often  so 
much  undercut  as  to  be  connected  with  the  mouldings  and 
backings  only  by  the  stalks  and  edges  of  the  leaves.  There 
is  generally  a stiffness  and  mannerism  in  the  combinations  of 
the  sculpture  of  this  era,  but  the  effect  of  it  is  almost  always 
so  beautiful,  that  we  overlook  its  unreality  in  the  great  flex- 
ibility and  freedom  both  of  the  conception  and  execution. 
The  prevailing  leaf  is  a trefoil;  this  was  also  used  to  form 
the  crockets,  which  had  their  origin  in  this  style. 

“The  Decorated,  or  Geometric  Middle  pointed-  style,” 
dates  from  a.  d.  1214  to  131 1,  during  the  reign  of  the  three 
Edwards. 

The  Decorated  style  is  of  two  characters,  which  can  be 
easily  defined  by  the  nature  of  the  traceries  of  the  windows, 
and  should  be  denominated  “ early  and  late  decorated.”  In 
the  former,  the  geometrical  figures  prevail,  consisting  of 
combinations  of  circles,  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  cinquefoils,  and 
triangles.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  harmony  of  its  forms. 


OF  ARCHITECT  ORE. 


101 


The  tracery  and  cuspings  were  fully  developed;  and  the 
uniting  of  several  openings  as  a whole  under  one  arch,  or  a 
succession  of  concentric  mouldings,  marked  an  evident  devi- 
ation from  the  arrangement  and  principles  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish architecture.  This  Geometric  Middle  Pointed  style  may 
be  considered  to  have  been  in  use  until  about  a.  d.  1321,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  when  the 
compositions  of  the  windows  seem  to  have  undergone  a 
change,  and  the  flowing  or  wavy  lines  succeeded,  producing 
an  almost  endless  variety  of  combinations.  At  the  period 
to  which  we  now  refer,  viz.,  from  1321  to  1311,  the  archi- 
tecture of  this  country  may  justly  be  considered  to  have 
attained  its  greatest  excellence,  both  as  regards  graceful 
proportion  and  a luxuriant  profusion  of  beautiful  ornament 
and  mouldings.  By  very  gradual  progression,  and  almost 
imperceptible  changes,  had  these  principles  of  graceful  de- 
sign and  unequalled  beauty  of  execution  been  arrived  at; 
and  it  cannot  be  denied  but  that  the  architectural  art  of  this 
period  was  neither  equalled  nor  surpassed  in  any  other  coun- 
try or  in  any  age. 

The  general  plan  of  ecclesiastical  and  monastic  buildings 
of  this  era  was  little  marked  by  any  deviation  from  that 
which  preceded  it : any  change  in  the  arrangement  is  to  be 
attributed  more  to  the  requirements  of  the  situation  than  to 
any  alteration  in  the  principles.  To  the  details  and  parts 
of  the  combinations  we  must  look  for  the  distinguishing  pe- 
culiarities. Throughout  the  century  during  which  this  style 
prevailed,  the  same  kind  of  arch  was  generally  used,  and  was 
either  equilateral,  obtuse-angled  triangles,  or  segmental  in 
form.  The  mouldings  consisted  chiefly  of  quarter  or  three- 
quarter  rounds,  with  fillets,  and  in  small  churches  double 
recessed  splays  alone  were  used:  the  deep  hollows  and  unfil- 
leted beads  of  the  former  style  were  quite  discontinued. 

The  piers  of  this  period,  on  which  the  nave  arches  rested, 
were  frequently  composed  of  half  or  three-quarter  cylindrical 
shafts,  which  in  some  instances  had  small  fillets  at  their 


102 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


greatest  projection,  and  in  others  smaller  shafts  or  filleted 
mouldings  were  placed  at  the  junction  of  the  large  shafts  : 
this  arrangement  differs  from  the  Early  English  in  the  col- 
umns being  more  closely  united.  The  octagonal,  cylindrical 
and  circular  pier  is  more  generally  to  be  found  in  small 
churches.  The  capitals  are  more  frequently  bell-shaped, 
crowned  by  quarter-rounds,  fillets,  and  other  mouldings,  and 
having  at  the  lower  part  a beaded  or  chamfered  astragal. 
In  the  richer  instances,  or  in  large  churches,  the  capitals 
were  either  numerously  moulded,  or  ornamented  with  light 
elegant  foliage,  distributed  completely  over  all  parts  of  the 
capital  but  the  abacus  and  the  astragal ; figures,  battlements, 
and  the  ball-fiower  were  frequently  introduced  on  it.  The 
bases  of  the  piers  differ  from  those  of  the  preceding  style,  in 
their  being  composed  of  two  or  more  small  round  mouldings, 
with  either  a quarter-round  or  hollow  below,  and  beneath  it 
a splay  or  curved  moulding  was  sometimes  introduced.  The 
ogee  form  was  in  some  cases  used,  but  it  more  frequently 
denoted  a later  period.  In  plan,  the  base  mouldings  take 
various  forms,  not  always  following  that  of  the  shaft,  but 
changing  from  the  circular  to  the  octagonal,  and  from  the 
octagonal  to  the  square. 

The  windows  of  this  style,  as  we  have  before  stated,  differ 
from  those  of  the  Early  English  style,  in  having  their  open- 
ings connected  and  blended  together  either  by  geometrical 
or  flowering  tracery  comprised  under  two-centered  arch 
mouldings.  They  are  generally  large  and  of  good  propor- 
tion: those  which  were  placed  either  at  the  east  or  west 
fonts,  or  at  the  transepts,  varied  from  three  to  seven  lights 
each,  and  were  divided  by  mullions,  which  at  the  springing 
of  the  arch  branched  out  either  into  geometrical  or  flowing 
combinations.  The  great  variety  of  the  traceries  in  windows 
of  this  style  renders  their  description  extremely  difficult. 
In  the  best  and  most  perfect  instances,  we  find  a principal 
and  subordinate  arrangement ; the  extreme  mouldings  bound- 
ing the  general  forms,  whilst  the  secondary  or  inside  mould- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


103 


ings  mark  the  disposition  and  form  of  the  lights.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that  these  harmonious  arrange- 
ments of  flowing  lines  were  not  produced  solely  from  a cor- 
rect perception  of  beautiful  forms,  but  were  grounded  on 
that  consummate  skill  and  mathematical  knowledge  for  which 
the  freemasons  of  this  country  were  so  eminent.  Square- 
headed  windows  were  very  frequently  employed,  both  in  the 
aisles  of  the  smaller  churches  and  in  the  clerestories ; in  many 
of  them  the  ball-flower  is  inserted  into  the  hollows  of  the 
jambs  and  along  the  top  mouldings,  and  sometimes  it  is 
introduced  into  the  under  mouldings  of  the  label.  Seg- 
mental, flat-headed  and  circular  windows  were  likewise  used. 
Windows  of  triangular  form,  having  the  sides  curved  and 
filled  in  with  tracery,  are  likewise  peculiar  to  this  date,  and 
either  used  to  fill  up  the  angle  of  the  gable  or  in  clerestories. 
Square  and  diamond-shaped  windows  are  sometimes  intro- 
duced in  churches  of  this  period. 

The  buttresses  of  this  style  are  more  varied  in  form  and 
disposition  than  those  which  preceded:  in  the  smaller  build- 
ings they  are  generally  of  two  stages,  and  frequently  finished 
by  gable-headed  terminations,  sometimes  adorned  with 
crockets  and  finials.  A gable  is  sometimes  introduced  at 
the  middle  weathering,  and  at  the  top  there  is  only  a succes- 
sion of  weatherings  or  moulded  water  tables,  with  a splay 
and  half  round  moulding  at  the  nosing  or  greater  projection. 
Traceries  and  panels  are  frequently  sunk  within  the  faces  of 
the  buttresses  of  the  large  ecclesiastical  buildings.  Niches 
were  likewise  made  in  some  of  those  attached  to  parochial 
churches.  Except  in  large  buildings,  where  the  buttresses 
have  pyramidical  terminations,  the  gable  heads  are  not  car- 
ried above  the  parapets.  In  many  cases  both  the  heads  and 
set-offs  are  weathered  and  splayed  without  enrichment:  the 
buttresses  of  this  date  were  placed  at  the  angles,  or  diagon- 
ally with  the  faces  of  the  walls.  Flying  buttresses  were  also 
used. 

The  niches  of  this  period  were  generally  surmounted  by 


104 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


canopies  of  a pedimental  or  ogee  form.  The  parapets  were 
pierced  with  trefoil  and  quatrefoil  openings.  Gurgoyls,  or 
grotesque  figures  projecting  from  the  walls,  were  first  em- 
ployed to  conduct  the  waters  from  the  gutters.  Concerning 
the  other  minor  details,  we  .cannot  now  speak. 

We  have  now  reached  the  “ third  period  of  the  pointed 
style ,”  which  may  be  dated  from  the  latter  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century  to  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth,  or 
early  in  the  times  of  Henry  the  Eighth.  The  general  pecu- 
liarities of  the  fully  developed  style  of  the  fifteenth  century 
are  chiefly,  visible  in  the  increased  expansion  of  the  upright 
and  square  tendency  of  the  tracery  of  the  windows,  the 
gorgeous,  fan-like  tracery  of  the  groinings,  the  four-centered 
arches  and  horizontal  lines  of  the  doorways,  the  excessive 
decoration  of  the  wooden  roofs,  and  in  the  decoration  of 
heraldric  enrichments  and  color. 

The  next  class  is  16  The  Castellated  and  Domestic  Buildings 
of  England , from  the  Norman  to  the  Tudor  Times ” The 
buildings  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  nobility,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  burgesses  and  common  people  of  England,  were  of  a very 
humble  character,  and  consisted  of  timber  covered  with  reeds 
and  straw:  the  former,  says  William  of  Malmsbury,  “squan- 
dered their  ample  means  in  low,  mean  dwellings.”  On  the 
settlement  of  the  Normans  after  the  Conquest,  the  kings, 
nobility  and  prelates  erected  large  and  magnificent  palaces 
or  castles;  and  the  barons  were  equally  jealous  in  raising 
fortified  castles,  as  were  the  priests  in  erecting  fortified 
buildings.  This  change,  like  all  others  in  the  art  of 
building,  was  the  result  of  necessity:  the  Normans  found, 
that  although  they  had  conquered,  and  intended  to  retain 
possession  of  the  country,  yet  they  were  surrounded  by  vas- 
sals by  whom  they  were  detested,  on  account  of  the  plunder 
and  subjugation  to  which  they  were  compelled  to  submit. 
During  the  reign  of  Stephen,  from  1135  to  1154,  no  less 
than  1115  castles  were  raised  from  their  foundations.  An 
eminence  near  a river  was  the  situation  usually  chosen:  the 
boundary  walls  were  often  of  great  extent,  and  in  plan  very 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


105 


irregular,  their  form  being  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the 
position,  or  levels  of  the  ground:  the  whole  was  surrounded 
by  a broad  ditch,  called  the  fosse,  which  could  be  filled  with 
water  when  required.  The  most  advanced  work  beyond  the 
fosse  was  the  barbican  or  watch-tower ; it  was  placed  before 
the  drawbridge  and  principal  entrance,  as  a protection  from 
sudden  assaults:  these  outworks  were  of  great  strength,  and 
so  planned,  that  if  the  gate  was  forced,  those  within  could 
still  annoy  the  assailants  from  the  turrets  and  embrasures 
during  their  attack  on  the  drawbridge  entrance.  Within 
the  ditch  was  a wall  of  great  strength,  frequently  from  8 to 
9 feet  in  thickness,  and  as  much  as  30  feet  in  height;  towers 
were  placed  at  the  most  commanding  or  principal  positions 
of  it,  in  which  the  principal  officers  of  the  castle  resided: 
inside  of  the  wall  were  the  apartments  for  the  retainers,  ser- 
vants, as  well  as  storehouses  and  necessary  offices.  On  the 
top  of  the  wall  was  a platform  extending  the  whole  length 
and  over  the  towers:  the  side  towards  the  ditch  was  pro- 
tected by  battlements.  The  great  gate  was  flanked  on  each 
side  with  a square  or  circular  tower,  and  above  the  gateway 
were  rooms  which  communicated  with  those  in  the  towers. 
The  mode  of  protecting  this  entrance  was  by  a portcullis,  or 
framework  of  wood  faced  with  iron;  it  was  fixed  in  a groove, 
and  was  raised  or  lowered  by  machinery ; behind  this  were 
massive  oak  double  doors,  which  were  either  covered  with 
iron  or  large  nail-heads.  Within  the  external  wall  was  a 
large  open  space  or  court,  containing  the  chapel:  in  some 
instances  another  ditch  or  wall  enclosed  an  inner  court  or 
ballium,  where  the  dungeon  or  keep  was  placed.  This  great 
tower,  the  principal  stronghold  of  the  castle,  was  built  on 
the  most  elevated  spot,  sometimes  on  an  artificial  mound, 
and  varied  from  four  to  five  stories  in  height.  The  walls 
were  of  great  thickness,  and  in  them  the  passages  or  stairs 
were,  built:  the  openings  were  small,  and  admitted  but  little 
light  into  the  apartments.  This  building  was  used  as  the 
residence  of  the  owner,  or  constable  of  the  castle,  and  was 


106 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


provided  with  underground  vaults  for  the  confinement  of 
prisoners.  On  the  second  floor  was  the  state  room  or  hall  for 
entertainment,  as  well  as  a chapel.  This  mass  of  masonry 
was  made  to  contain  provisions  and  ammunition  for  a long  de- 
fence, in  the  event  of  the  rest  of  the  castle  being  taken:  the 
well  was  usually  in  the  centre  of  the  tower,  and  had  openings 
to  each  floor.*  The  only  admission  to  this  tower  was  by  a door 
at  from  15  to  20  feet  from  the  ground,  approached  by  a steep 
external  staircase.  The  whole  of  this  strong  building  wTas 
surmounted  by  projecting  .battlements  and  machicolations, 
through  the  openings  of  which  arrows,  stones  and  other  mis- 
siles were  thrown  on  the  assailants.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  habitable  began  to  change  into  the 
castellated  mansion. 

The  Domestic  and  Civil  Architecture  of  England  of  the 
Tudor  and  Elizabethan  periods,  differ  from  the  preceding  in 
its  applicability  to  domestic  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  structures. 

In  the  ornamental  domestic  architecture  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  generally  designated  Tudor,  (there 
are  very  few  examples  before  that  period,)  we  perceive  the 
same  style  as  that  of  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  applied  to 
another  class,  where,  although  the  parts  are  somewhat  differ- 
ently composed,  the  style  of  ornament  and  detail  is  essen- 
tially the  same.  Some  features,  such  as  doorways  and 
porches,  are  very  little  altered  from  those  of  churches;  while 
others,  unknown  to  the  latter  class  of  buildings,  such  as 
chimneys  and  projecting  windows,  became  highly  character- 
istic and  decorative  in  this.  Oriel  and  bay  windows  are 
peculiar  to  this  style:  these  terms  are  often  used  indiscrimi- 
nately;— the  former  of  these  project  out  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  building,  and  overhang  that  below,  being  corbelled 
upon  mouldings  splaying  downwards  on  every  side:  the  latter 
may  be  similar  in  openings  and  ornament,  but  they  rise  imme- 
diately from  the  ground,  and  are  connected  with  the  building 
by  the  base  and  string-course  mouldings.  Oriels  are  both 


* Those  at  Rochester  and  Conisburg  are  still  existing. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


107 


single  and  compound,  that  is,  are  either  confined  to  one  of 
the  upper  floors  of  the  building,  or  carried  up  through  all 
its  stories. 

Although  chimneys  had  been  long  invented,  and  were 
much  in  use  for  other  rooms,  our  ancestors  do  not  appear  to 
have  introduced  them  generally  into  their  halls  until  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  or  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  previously  open  hearth,  on  which  the  fire  was 
made,  was  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  and  the  smoke  escaped 
through  the  louvre  lantern  in  the  roof:  about  this  period 
they  were  added  to  many  halls  of  an  older  date. 

The  general  plan,  as  we  have  before  observed,  of  the 
larger  mansions  of  the  Tudor  period  was  quadrangular,  con- 
sisting of  an  inner  and  base  court,  between  which  stood  the 
gate-house:  on  the  side  of  the  inner  court  facing  the  en- 
trance, the  principal  apartments  were  placed ; these  consisted 
of  the  hall,  the  chapel,  the  great  chamber  and  dining-room, 
and  were  connected  with  a gallery  for  amusements,  running 
the  whole  length  of  another  side  of  the  quadrangle. 

The  great  halls  in  the  palaces,  mansions  and  colleges  of 
this  period  were  extremely  lofty,  frequently  predominating 
over  the  surrounding  buildings:  the  ceilings  and  roofs  were 
very  boldly  constructed  and  elaborately  ornamented. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  is  remarkable  for  the  introduction 
of  a style  of  domestic  architecture  more  systematic  in  plan, 
more  commodious  in  its  arrangements,  and  imposing  in  its 
effects,  than  any  preceding.  Up  to  this  period  the  mansions 
of  the  nobles  were  only  one  story  in  height,  and  in  plan 
greatly  deficient  in  the  requirements  incidental  to  the  im- 
proved social  condition.  Indeed,  the  domestic  architecture 
under  Elizabeth  had  assumed  a more  scientific  character,  and 
we  have  ample  evidence  that  no  building  was  now  undertaken 
without  the  previous  arrangement  of  a well  considered  plan. 
Books  on  the  arts  of  design  and  construction  were  now  pub- 
lished, and  architects  had  begun  to  act  upon  a system  in  the 
construction  of  the  palatial  houses  of  the  aristocracy.  The 


108 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


principal  deviation  from  the  plans  of  the  Tudor  houses  was 
in  the  frequent  introduction  of  bay  windows;  the  improve- 
ment in  the  galleries,  which  were  now  generally  lofty,  wide, 
and  more  than  100  feet  in  length;  that  of  staircases,,  from 
being  small  and  inconvenient,  to  occupying  a considerable 
portion  of  the  mansion,  and  communicating  with  the  entrance 
or  staircase  halls  of  spacious  dimensions.  The  exteriors  of 
the  porticoes  were  greatly  enriched  with  carved  entablatures, 
columns,  pilasters,  figures,  armorial  bearings,  and  every 
variety  of  device  which  the  most  fantastic  imagination  could 
supply. 

To  houses  of  this  date,  terraces  of  great  grandeur  were 
generally  attached,  connected  with  each  other  by  broad 
flights  of  steps ; — they  were  bounded  by  richly  perforated 
parapets  or  balustrades.  The  windows  retain  more  of  the 
Gothic  character  than  any  other  feature;  they  were  divided 
by  mullions  and  transoms,  although  their  height,  as  well  as 
width,  was  generally  much  increased:  in  some  examples  there 
are  three  or  four  tiers  of  openings,  diminishing  in  height  as 
they  ascend. 

The  Italian  Orders  are  much  introduced,  but  their  classic 
proportions  not  attended  to : the  columns,  pilasters,  and  piers 
are  usually  banded  in  several  courses  by  square  blocks,  which 
are  constantly  decorated  with  diamond  or  jewel-shaped  pro- 
jections: this  ornament  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a distinct  characteristic  of  this  style. 
The  entablatures  are  more  usually  broken,  either  by  project- 
ing profiles  or  scrolled  and  voluted  ornaments.  The  bay 
windows,  parapets,  and  gables  are  terminated  in  general  by 
perforated  ornaments  of  either  a square,  circular,  or  scroll 
form. 

This  singular  manner  of  designing  must  be  examined  to 
be  well  understood;  no  description  can  possibly  convey  a 
just  idea  of  its  complex  forms  and  elaborate  ornaments. 
There  is  perhaps  no  class  of  English  architecture  more  com- 
pounded of  inconsistencies,  defects,  and  beauties,  than  this 


Or  ARCHITECTURE. 


109 


mixture  of  Gothic  and  Italian;  but  to  be  properly  appre- 
ciated, it  should  be  studied  with  a mind  unbiased  alike  by 
the  tendencies  of  a previous  education  and  the  indiscriminat- 
ing  caprices  of  fashion.  The  application  of  this  style  to 
country  mansions  is  unquestionably  not  to  be  equalled  by 
any  other,  as  its  varied  forms  of  plan  and  outline  will  either 
harmonize  or  contrast  beautifully  with  scenery  of  any 
description. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  architects  of  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  her  successor  was  John  Thorpe,  who  designed 
and  erected  most  of  the  principal  palatial  edifices  of  the 
time.  The  general  form  of  his  plans  is  that  of  three  sides 
of  a quadrangle,  and  the  portico  in  the  centre.  # When  the 
quadrangles  were  used,  they  are  surrounded  by  an  open 
arcade  or  corridor.  Bernard  Adams  and  Lawrence  Brad- 
shaw, Bobert  and  Huntingdon  Smithson,  were  also  eminent 
architects  of  this  period. 

The  plaster  ceilings  of  the  Elizabethan  date  are  particu- 
larly deserving  of  attention,  on  account  of  their  richness  and 
beautiful  arrangement : the  fire-places,  paneling,  cornices, 
friezes,  and  ornaments  of  the  principal  apartments,  were  ex- 
tremely varied,  and  generally  good  in  design. 

The  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  during  the 
reign  of  James  the  First,  is  the  period  of  the  introduction  of 
unmixed  Italian  architecture  into  England:  it  is  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  genius  of  Inigo  Jones,  who,  in  the  early  part 
of  his  professional  career,  had  erected  and  altered  several 
large  buildings  in  the  mixed  style,  which  continued  to  pre- 
vail until  his  masterly  designs  of  the  Venetian  school  caused 
a general  admiration  and  adoption  of  this  class  of  art.  Lit- 
tle is  known  of  Inigo  Jones  or  his  works  as  an  architect  pre- 
vious to  1605,  when  James  the  First  visited  the  university 
of  Oxford,  at  vThich  time  he  was  employed  on  the  quadrangle 
at  St.  John’s  college,  and  had  been  to  Italy:  from  that  time 
until  his  second  visit,  the  buildings  on  which  he  was  engaged 
were  of  a mixed  or  transition  character;  when,  by  a careful 

10 


no 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


study  of  the  works  of  Palladio,  he  perfected  his  taste,  ripened 
his  judgment,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  his  future  well- 
merited  reputation.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  office  of  Surveyor  of  Public  Buildings,  and  from 
that  time  his  fame  and  practice  rapidly  increased. 

The  numerous  works  executed  by  J ones  have  received,  at 
different  times,  both  praise  and  severe  criticism  : it  must  be 
admitted  that  his  admiration  of  Palladian  architecture  some- 
times led  him  to  adopt  plans  and  arrangements  for  houses 
not  altogether  suited  to  our  climate  or  habits,  and  to  aim  at 
a splendor  of  design,  which,  under  the  circumstances,  could 
not  be  accomplished.  The  combination  of  his  windows  was 
Italian,  and.  the  piers  between  them  were  frequently  so  large 
as  to  offer  too  much  obstruction  to  the  admission  of  suffi- 
cient light.  Objections  have  been  offered  to  the  height  of 
his  roofs,  and  the  unmeaning,  as  well  as  useless,  introduction 
of  porticoes  in  the  centres  of  his  faqades.  The  encourage- 
ment received  by  Inigo  Jones  was  brought  to  a close  by  the 
misfortunes  of  his  royal  patron:  art  or  artists  found  so  little 
favor  or  encouragement  during  the  time  of  the  Common- 
wealth, that,  unmindful  of  his  talents,  he  had  to  pay  £545 
as  a penalty  for  being  a Homan  Catholic.  Disappointment 
and  trouble  accelerated  his  death,  which  took  place  in 
1651. 

The  fire  of  1666,  which  destroyed  nearly  the  whole  of 
London,  was  the  occasion  to  which  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
was  indebted  for  the  opportunities  of  displaying  his  skill  in 
architecture  and  constructive  science.  One  of  his  first  de- 
signs was  that  for  the  rebuilding  the  city  on  a regular  plan, 
which  unfortunately  was  never  carried  wholly  into  effect, — 
and  is  the  more  to  be  regreted,  as  we  then  should  have  been 
spared  the  inconvenience  resulting  from  our  present  bad 
arrangement.  The  task  of  re-erecting  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Paul  and  the  greater  part  of  the  churches  in  the  city  was 
intrusted  to  Wren,  whose  distinguished  talents  were  fully 
equal  to  the  stupendous  undertaking.  No  architect,  before 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Ill 


or  since  his  time,  has  possessed  such  a variety  of  knowledge, 
both  in  design  and  construction:  the  multiplicity  and  mag- 
nitude of  his  works  proclaim  the  universality  of  his  genius. 
The  same  hand  produced  the  noblest  of  modern  cathedrals, 
the  largest  palace,  hospitals,  and  numberless  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings,  besides  twenty-five  churches  in  the  city  of 
London.  Great  length  of  days  were  bestowed  on  him; — 
11  he  lived  to  enrich  the  reigns  of  several  princes,  and  dis- 
graced the  last  of  them;” — (at  the  advanced  age  of  86  he 
was  removed  by  George  I.  from  the  office  of  Surveyor  Gen- 
eral;)— “he  restored  London,  and  recorded  its  fall;” — he 
designed  and  lived  to  complete  a building  which  is  the  boast 
of  England  and  the  admiration  of  the  world,  of  which  a gen- 
eral description  is  all  that  we  can  give. 

The  cathedral  church  of  St.  Paul  stands  on  a greater  por- 
tion of  the  site  of  the  old  one : the  designs  were  approved  by 
Charles  II.,  and  the  warrant  issued  for  the  execution  of  the 
works  on  the  1st  of  May,  1615.  The  first  stone  was  laid  on 
the  21st  of  June,  1615:  within  ten  years  the  walls  of  the 
choir  and  aisles  and  the  north  and  south  porticoes  w~ere  fin- 
ished, and  the  piers  of  the  dome  were  brought  up  to  the 
same  height.  The  highest  stone  on  the  top  of  the  lantern, 
which  was  the  last,  was  laid  by  the  son  of  the  architect,  in 
1110.  The  whole  edifice  was  completed  in  thirty-five  years, 
having  only  one  architect,  one  master-mason,  and  the  see 
being  occupied  the  whole  time  by  one  bishop. 

The  plan  of  St.  Paul’s  is  a Latin  cross,  measuring  from 
east  to  west  480  feet;  its  general  breadth  on  the  exterior  is 
125  feet,  and  from  the  north  to  the  south  ends  of  the  tran- 
septs 280  feet.  The  western  end  of  the  edifice  is  flanked  by 
towers  on  the  same  plan  as  the  walls,  but  projecting  21  feet 
beyond  the  north  and  south  walls,  thus  making  the  whole 
width  of  the  fagade  180  feet.  The  exterior  of  the  building 
consists  of  two  Orders; — the  lower,  or  Corinthian,  stands  on 
a basement  10  feet  above  the  ground,  which  is  the  level  of 
the  church,  which  on  the  western  side  is  approached  by  a 


112 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


magnificent  flight  of  marble  steps,  extending  nearly  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  front.  From  this  level  to  the  top  of  the 
entablature,  or  the  whole  height  of  the  Order,  is  50  feet ; 
and  from  this  to  the  upper  part  of  the  second  Order,  which 
is  Composite,  is  40  feet  ; thus  making  the  whole  height  of 
the  body  of  the  church  100  feet  from  the  ground.  A mag- 
nificent portico,  of  the  two  Orders  in  height,  ornaments  the 
western  front;  the  lower  story  consists  of  twelve  coupled 
columns,  and  the  upper  of  eight,  besides  four  pilasters  ; this 
portico  is  surmounted  by  a pediment,  on  whose  tympanum 
the  subject  of  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul  is  sculptured  in 
high  relief.  At  the  ends  of  the  transepts  are  porticoes,  iiT 
form  of  a segment  of  a circle,  round  which  are  six  fluted  Co- 
rinthian columns;  this  is  crowned  by  a half-dome,  resting 
against  the  wall  of  the  building. 

In  the  absence  of  an  elevation  and  section  of  the  dome 
and  lantern,  it  would  be  nearly  impossible  to  give  a satisfac- 
tory description  of  the  constructive  peculiarities  of  this  and 
other  portions  of  the  building;  we  must  therefore  content 
ourselves  with  only  giving  the  dimensions.  The  height  from 
the  pavement  to  the  opening  of  the  inner  dome  (which  is  of 
’brick-work)  is  168  feet,  and  its  diameter  100  feet.  On  the 
haunches  of  this  dome,  at  200  feet  from  the  pavement,  rests 
the  base  of  a cone  of  brick-work,  the  top  of  which  is  285  feet 
from  the  level  of  the  church:  this  carries  a stone  lantern  55 
feet  high,  terminating  in  a dome,  and  above  this  is  a ball 
and  cross.  The  external  dome  is  of  oak,  covered  with  lead, 
and  is  supported  by  horizontal  and  vertical  timbers  resting 
on  corbels  fixed  in  the  brick  cone.  The  lateral  thrust  of  the 
cone  and  the  interior  dome  is  restrained  by  four  tiers  of  strong 
iron  chains,  bedded  with  lead  in  grooves  cut  in  the  masonry 
at  the  base  and  at  different  heights  on  the  exterior  of  the 
. dome.  The  towers  at  the  extremities  of  the  western  front 
are  220  feet  high,  and  ornamented  with  Corinthian  pilasters, 
terminating  above  the  roof  of  the  church  in  open  lanterns, 
and  covered  with  domes.  On  the  exterior  of  the  building, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


113 


the  intervals  of  the  columns  and  pilasters  are  occupied  by 
niches  or  windows  with  semi-circular  or  horizontal  heads, 
and  crowned  by  pediments.  In  the  upper  Order  of  the 
north  and  south  sides  there  are  no  windows,  as  it  is  merely  a 
screening  wall  to  the  nave. 

This  edifice  may,  for  elegance  of  design,  bear  comparison 
with  any  in  Europe,  not  even  excepting  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome, 
though  it  is  far  from  being  so  large.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  the  interior  faces  of  the  walls  present  a naked 
appearance,  and  require  much  embellishment  from  ornament- 
al sculpture  before  they  will  harmonize  with  the  richness  of 
the  exterior.  A great  defect  also  arises,  in  the  interior, 
from  the  want  of  connection,  which  is  caused  by  the  arcades 
interrupting  the  entablatures.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  ap- 
pears to  have  surpassed  all  those  who  preceded  him  in  the 
skill  required  for  raising  a building  on  the  minimum  of  foun- 
dation. Some  criterion  may  be  drawn  of  the  comparative 
skill  employed  in  the  construction  of  other  buildings  some- 
what similar,  by  comparing  the  ratio  between  the  area  of 
the  whole  plan  and  that  of  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  whole 
of  the  piers,  walls,  and  pillars  which  serve  to  support  the 
superincumbent  mass.  To  produce  the  greatest  effect  by  the 
smallest  means  is  one  of  the  first  qualifications  of  an  archi- 
tect, and  the  similarity  of  four  churches  affords  a criterion  of 
their  respective  merits  as  to  the  least  amount  of  solid  for 
area. 

Wren  lived  to  complete  St.  Paul’s  (which  cost  £136,152, 
exclusive  of  the  stone  and  iron  enclosures  round  it,  which 
cost  £11,202):  he  died  in  1123,  at  the  age  of  91,  and  was 
buried  under  the  fabric, — with  four  words — 

SI  QUJERAS  MONUMENTUM  CIRCU^ISPICE. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century  flourished 
Sir  John  Yanburgh,  who  built  edifices  after  fashions  of  his 
own. 

After Nhhn  came  James  Gibbs,  who  built  many  churches 
and  other  buildings;  then  came  Sir  William  Chambers,  the 


114 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


architect  of  Somerset  House  and  the  author  of  an  excellent 
work  on  civil  architecture. 

England  to-day  practises  all  sorts,  and  has  no  distinctive 
style  of  its  own. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


115 


BOOK  III. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Definition  of  Architecture — Its  Necessity,  Uses  and  Requirements. 

“ Well  building  hath  three  conditions  : Commodity,  Firmness  and  Delight.” 

Sir  Henry  Wotton. 

Architecture  is  the  art  of  well  building;  in  other  words, 
the  perfect  adaptation  of  a building  to  each  of  its  parts,  and 
to  the  purposes  of  its  building.  There  is  a wide  difference 
between  the  art  of  Building,  and  Architecture — but  none 
between  Architecture  and  ^/-Building.  No  building  is 
well  built  which  does  not,  in  addition  to  all  its  utilitarian 
purposes,  evince  the  greatest  beauty  capable  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, to  attract  the  attention,  to  exercise  the  fancy, 
to  subdue  the  passions,  to  call  forth  the  aspirations,  or  to 
dazzle  with  its  imposing  majesty,  as  may  be  most  appropriate. 

The  contemplation  of  perfection  is  always  the  contempla- 
tion of  a thing  of  Beauty.  Perfection  is  always  beautiful, 
and  truly  has  it  been  said  of  Architecture,  or  well-building, 
that  it  is  “the  art  of  the  beautiful  in  building.” 

The  contemplation  of  “ a thing  of  beauty  is  a joy  forever,” 
and  rightly  has  Sir  Henry  Wotton  said  that  “Delight”  is 
an  inseparable  condition  of  Architecture.  That  building 
which  awakens  not  in  the  human  breast  feelings  of  pleasure 
or  delight,  is  not  well-building,  or  Architecture. 

In  no  civilized  country  is  the  art  of  true  Architecture  less 
understood  or  practiced  than  in  the  United  States.  True, 
we  have  buildings  which  are  perfect  samples  of  nearly  every 
style,  character,  and  order  of  architecture,  which  has  ever 
been  known  in  any  portion  of  the  globe.  But  there  is  a 
prevailing  sentiment  too  common  among  our  people,  that  if 


116 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


it  be  “ firm  or  stable,”  and  commodious  or  convenient,  that 
all  that  is  required  is  had.  This  sentiment  was  never  learn- 
ed by  man' from  nature,  nor  does  he  act  upon  it  in  his  other 
occupations  and  pursuits.  The  rain  that  descends  from  the 
heavens  to  moisten  the  earth  and  to  nourish  vegetation,  fails 
not  while  doing  its  work  to  paint  the  beauteous  rainbow  to 
please  and  gladden  the  hearts  of  all  observers.  Our  coun- 
trymen should  have  it  impressed  upon  them  that  even  though 
their  buildings  be  convenient  and  stable,  unless  they  show  all 
the  beauteous  perfection  which  the  circumstances  admit,  they 
are  neither  architectural  or  well-built.  Buildings  may  be 
sometimes  perfectly  fitted  to  their  purpose,  and  yet  not  only 
devoid  of  beauty,  but  positively  hideous  and  disgusting  to 
the  eye.  There  are  four  points  quite  necessary  to  be  kept  in 
view  in  Architecture — Politeness,  Beauty,  Expression  and 
Poetry. 

1st.  Politeness.  Erom  the  time  that  selfish  Cain,  the 
first-born,  beat  down  as  an  enemy  and  destroyed  his  brother 
Abel,  the  second-born,  to  the  present  day,  selfishness  has 
been  a dominant  and  degrading  principle  of  manhood.  As 
manhood  grew  in  the  human  breast,  so  selfishness  began  to 
die.  Step  by  step  may  we  see  man’s  exclusiveness  expand- 
ing from  self  to  the  family,  from  the  family  to  the  tribe,  from 
the  tribe  to  the  nation,  till  to-day  we  see  manhood  owning 
man  for  his  brother.  He  even  does  not  now  consider  that 
edifice  or  structure  well-built  which  does  not,  in  addition  to 
its  purposes  of  utility,  possess  that  beauty  which  will  awa- 
ken manly  pleasure  and  delight  in  the  breast  of  every  brother 
man  who  contemplates  it.  That  selfishness  which  erects 
buildings  with  a single  eye  to  the  convenience  of  him  who 
builds  them,  has  died  out.  The  fraternity  of  manhood 
requires  that  it  must  be  adorned  with  beauty,  built  with  pro- 
priety, fitness  and  order,  so  as  not  to  offend  to  the  sense  or 
taste  of  men,  but  to  please,  to  amaze,  or  to  compliment 
them. 

2d.  Beauty  is  ever  associated  with  perfection,  not  ornament. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


lit 


The  beauty  of  simplicity  far  exceeds  the  mock  beauty  of 
gaudy,  showy  ornamentation.  The  beauty  of  simplicity 
never  fails  to  call  forth  admiration.  Beauty  is  not  capable 
of  division  into  its  constituent  parts — its  very  essence  con- 
sists in  its  wholeness.  We  think  it  a profitless  pursuit  to 
follow  our  author  in  his  attempt  to  divide  under  general 
heads  the  various  parts  of  beauty. 

3d.  j Expression.  Education  is  not  required  to  feel  the  ex- 
pressiveness of  art ; give  us  the  mind  wholly  uneducated  in 
it ; give  us  the  rustic  or  the  child  unused  to  cities,  uncorrupt- 
ed by  the  sight  of  abused  architecture,  and  he  shall  imme- 
diately feel  in  the  true  art  all  its  intended  effects, — shall  be 
awed  by  the  sublime  majesty  of  the  Doric,  or  raised  by  the 
heavenward  aspiration  of  the  Gothic  temple  ; soothed  by 
the  mild  repose  of  Palladio,  and  enlivened  by  the  playful 
fancy  of  Scammozzi;  sobered  by  the  severe  purity  of  the 
Greeks,  and  relaxed  by  the  picturesque  riot  of  Vamburgh; 
attracted  by  the  inviting  urbanity  of  the  Yicentine  villa,  and 
repelled  by  the  gloomy  frown  of  the  Florentine  castle. 
Among  pieces  of  true  architecture  he  shall  not  need  to  ask 
which  is  the  temple,  and  which  is  the  forum.  lie  shall 
know  at  a glance  the  festive  theatre  and  the  stern  hall  of 
hoodwinked  justice,  the  modest  hospital  and  the  patrician 
palace.  He  shall  not  mistake  what  is  public  for  what  is 
private,  nor  fail  to  distinguish  which  buildings  are  dedicated 
to  business,  which  to  pleasure  or  to  repose.  All  this  is  ex- 
pressed by  art,  not  conventionalism,  and  is  intelligible  to  the 
perfectly  artless,  as  well  or  better  than  to  him  of  cultivated 
taste — and  why?  Because  the  cultivation  required  does  not 
consist  in  learning,  but  in  unlearning  the  prejudices  of  a life, 
— in  getting  rid  of  the  mass  of  falsehood  imbibed  during 
years  passed  in  the  presence  of  an  indiscriminate  mixture 
and  misapplication  of  every  thing  that  is  expressive  in  archi- 
tecture; the  abuse  of  employing  it  all  alike,  for  the  sake  of 
ornament  instead  of  propriety,  fancy  instead  of  discretion.  In 
the  culture  required  to  feel  rightly  the  effects  of  this  art, 


118 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


there  is  nothing  to  be  learnt,  but  every  thing  to  be  unlearnt. 
The  savage  and  the  highly  cultivated  are  alike  in  this 
respect ; or  rather,  the  acme  of  this  cultivation  is  to  approach 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  feelings  of  the  totally  ignorant, — 
of  one  to  whom  all  architecture  is  new.  But  to  those 
brought  up  in  modern  English  cities  this  is  perhaps  impossi- 
ble, (I  do  not  mean  in  its  perfection,  but  in  such  degree  as 
to  be  useful,)  so  completely  must  their  natural  sense  of  right 
and  wrong  become  in  this  respect  deadened  and  subverted, 
by  the  time  their  education  is  complete. 

If  there  be  no  differences  of  expression  in  architecture, 
then  is  it  no  fine  art,  but  a trifle  beneath  the  notice  of  an 
educated  man,  and  which  must  soon  find  its  level,  by  sink- 
ing into  the  hands  of  mere  constructors  and  decorators. 

Definite  expression,  though  almost  forgotten  and  become 
a dead  letter,  in  modern  English  architecture — though 
almost  above  the  reach  of  the  art  in  its  present  state — is  yet 
not  the  highest  aim  of  that  art,  in  its  complete  form.  It  is 
' acknowledged  that  this,  in  common  with  all  the  arts  of  ex- 
pression, presents  in  its  most  excellent  works  a merit  or 
merits  not  to  be  described  or  conveyed  in  any  other  medium 
than  the  art  itself, — moreover,  a degree  of  excellence  supe- 
rior to  mere  expression,  because  capable  not  only,  like  that, 
of  reaching  and  affecting  the  mind,  but  also  of  elevating,  re- 
fining, or  improving  it. 

In  the  want  of  a better  term,  this  portion  of  each  art  has 
been  called  its  poetry, — a very  questionable  application  of 
the  name  of  one  art  to  express  a particular  portion  of  an- 
other. However,  we  must  take  words  as  we  find  them,  and 
content  ourselves  with  distinguishing  the  things  to  which 
they  have  been  applied. 

Poetry,  in  its  ordinary  and  strict  acceptation,  cannot  exist 
where  there  is  no  language — no  assertion  made — no  story 
told — no  idea  stated.  Now,  we  have  denied  to  architecture 
the  power  of  doing  this.  The  phonetic  arts,  viz.,  historical 
painting  and  historical  sculpture,  may  do  it  : they  speak  a 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


119 


language — a natural  and  universal  language — and  therefore 
may  be  poetical,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  But 
architecture,  like  music,  has  no  natural  language,  and  is 
only  degraded  when  it  attempts  to  speak  an  artificial  one 
by  means  of  conventional  signs.  Nothing  can  be  pushed  out 
of  its  proper  sphere  without  being  degraded;  in  a lower 
sphere  it  is  cramped,  and  its  highest  qualities  stifled;  in  a 
higher,  it  is  equally  degraded,  because  its  inability  to  do 
what  is  required  of  it,  is  exposed.  Architecture  is  not  ex- 
alted by  attempts  to  render  it  phonetic, — to  make  it  serve 
the  purpose  of  a language. 

Where  there  is  no  language,  there  can  be  no  poetry,  in  its 
strict  sense ; yet  we  hear  of  the  poetry  of  music  and  of  arch- 
itecture; hence  this  term  must  here  be  taken  in  a more  ex- 
tended sense.  It  may  be  understood  in  three  ways : first , as 
applying  to  the  untaught  portion,  or  that  portion  which 
transcends  the  rules  and  theory  of  the  art  in  their  present 
state;  secondly , as  including  those  beauties  or  perfections  in 
each  art,  which  are  not,  or  have  not  been,  conveyed  in  any 
other, — consequently,  not  in  words ; or  thirdly,  as  applying 
to  those  qualities  by  which  its  highest  productions  are  cal- 
culated to  produce,  not  only  a transient  emotion,  but  a per- 
manent effect  on  the  beholder.  In  either  case,  the  precise 
limit  of  the  application  of  the  word  must  be  vague:  the 
lowest  production  in  which  any  poetry  may  be  considered  to 
exist,  cannot  be  exactly  pointed  out;  but  of  its  existence  in 
the  highest  efforts  of  the  art,  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion. 

Whoever  wanders  among  the  hundred  columns  of  the 
great  hall  of  the  temple  of  Karnac ; whoever,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  designs  or  models,  and  of  the  fragments  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  restores  and  rebuilds  in  his  mind’s  eye,  the 
small  but  glorious  temple  of  the  Athenian  goddess ; whoever 
climbs  the  ruined  stairs  of  the  Colosseum,  to  the  edge  of  its 
artificial  crater ; whoever  enters  the  cathedral  of  Amiens,  or 
walks  round  the  exterior  of  that  of  Salisbury;  whoever 
views  any  one  of  these  works  of  architecture,  and  finds  no 


120 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


poetry  in  it,  must  be  incapable  of  discovering  it  in  any  thing 
else— in  nature  or  in  art. 

There  is,  then,  or  rather  there  has  leen,  such  a thing  as  a 
poetry  of  architecture ; and  we  may  therefore,  including  this, 
consider  the  whole  aim  of  “ architecture  proper/7  apart  from 
building,  under  four  heads, — politeness,  beauty,  expression, 
and  poetry.  It  has  been  the  object  of  the  present  chapter 
to  point  out  to  the  reader  this  fourfold  use  of  architecture  : 
first,  as  a courtesy  due,  from  every  one  who  builds,  to  hu- 
manity, on  whose  ground  and  in  whose  sight  he  builds; 
secondly , as  a further  refinement  of  this  courtesy  into  positive 
beauty,  by  attention  to  whatever  may  please  the  mind;  and 
preference  of  what  may  please  its  higher  faculties,  before 
that  which  may  please  the  lower,  when  they  are  incompati- 
ble; (the  justice  of  this  preference  constituting  the  difference 
between  right  and  wrong  in  art,  commonly  called  good  and 
bad  taste ; ) thirdly , as  a mode  of  conveying  to  the  mind  defi- 
nite emotions,  suited  to,  and  even  indicative  of,  the  character 
and"  general  destination  of  the  work ; lastly , as  a means  not 
only  of  affecting,  but  of  exalting  or  improving.  The  archi- 
tecture which  attains  only  the  first  of  these  objects  is  no 
more  than  a polite  art;  when  it  reaches  the  second,  it  be- 
comes an  ornamental  art;  by  attaining  the  third,  (and  not 
otherwise,)  it  gains  a title  to  be  considered  a fine , that  is, 
an  expressive  art:  in  those  very  few  of  its  productions  in 
which  the  last  purpose  has  been  accomplished,  does  it  de- 
serve to  be  called  a high,  a poetic  art.  As  the  first,  its  aim 
is  to  conciliate;  as  the  second,  to  please;  as  the  third,  to 
touch;  and  as  the  last,  to  teach. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


121 


CHAPTER  II. 

Occular  and  Formal  Beauty — First  Generalization  thereon  — Unity 
and  Variety — Graduation  and  Contrast . 

It  is  the  natural  progress  of  instruction  to  teach  first  what  is  obvious  and  per- 
ceptible to  the  senses,  and  from  hence  proceed  gradually  to  notions  large,  liberal, 
and  complete,  such  as  comprise  the  more  refined  and  higher  excellences  in  art. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

Great  difference  exists  among  writers  with  respect  to 
occular  and  mental  pleasure — some  contending  that  such  a 
distinction  in  fact  exists,  while  others  deny  it,  and  assert 
that  the  eye  experiences  no  more  pleasure  in  contemplating 
one  thing  than  another — that  is,  considered  apart  from  men- 
tal inferences  and  associations. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  eye  has  its  choice  of 
color , for  children  and  savages,  in  the  choice  of  colors,  con- 
sulting nothing  beyond  the  immediate  gratification  of  the 
eye,  invariably  prefer  a certain  class  of  colors — those  termed 
crude  or  positive — to  another  class,  those  which  we  term 
dull  colors  or  tones.  This  is  a mere  sensuous  preference, 
like  that  of  sound  or  flavor. 

The  discovery  of  a physical  reason  for  the  preferences  of 
the  eye  must  be  considered  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of 
inductive  science.  It  is  perfectly  known  that  the  difference 
is  the  same  in  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing.  The  most 
pleasurable  sensations  are  produced  by  the  inconceivably 
rapid  repetition  of  vibrations  or  pulsations  very  regularly 
or  even  timed.  The  dead  or  duller  colors  are  caused  by  the 
irregular  vibrations. 

The  harmony  of  colors,  that  is,  the  preference  given  to  a 
juxtaposition  of  colors,  rather  than  to  that  of  any  other  two, 
though  equally  bright  or  pleasing  when  seen  separately, 
must  be  wholly  an  occular  beauty;  for  the  mind  cannot  (by 
the  direct  evidence  of  unaided  sense)  discover  any  relation 

11 


122 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


between  red  and  green,  for  instance,  which  does  not  exist 
between  bine  and  green.  We  can  only  say  that  the  former 
harmonize,  and  the  latter  do  not.  As  the  mind  knows 
nothing,  in  general,  about  this  harmony,  the  mind  can  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  appreciation  of  it.  The  cause  of  this 
harmony  is  : two  sets  of  vibrations  which  are  each  regular 
in  itself,  and  which  bear  a simple  ratio  to  each  other,  by 
uniting  together,  form  a vibration  which  is  therefore  regu- 
lar and  musical ; but  two  vibrations  which,  however  regular 
each  may  be  alone,  bear  no  commensurable  ratio  to  each 
other,  will,  by  their  union,  produce  a totally  irregular  vibra- 
tion: that  is,  a noise.  There  are  many  nice  discoveries — 
perhaps  nothing  more  than  theories — concerning  the  cause 
of  harmony  of  colors.  On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that 
the  laws  of  coloring,  as  a gratification  of  the  eye  only,  are 
simply  these: 

1.  That  the  more  regular  the  vibrations  of  any  given  color 
may  be,  the  more  pleasing  will  it  be  in  itself,  apart  from  fit- 
ness or  association  with  others. 

2.  That,  as  these  isochoranous  colors — (colors  caused  by 
regular  vibration) — have  a more  exciting  effect  on  the  reti- 
na than  those  which  are  of  the  same  brightness  but  not  iso- 
choranous, the  repose  afforded  by  a change  from  the  former 
to  the  latter  is  also  grateful ; so  that  we  should  follow  the 
example  of  nature’s  works,  throughout  which  the  sober, 
mixed  or  subdued  tones  are  the  rule,  and  the  pure  or  isocho- 
ranous colors  the  exception;  for  it  is  a less  evil  to  be  able 
to  find  excitement,  than  to  be  able  to  find  repose. 

3.  That  variety  of  coloring  is  abstractly  (without  refer- 
ence to  fitness,  &c.,)  more  pleasing  than  monotony,  especi- 
ally when  the  colors  that  adjoin  each  other  have  their  vibra- 
tions in  a harmonic  ratio;  that  is,  when  they  form  contrasts, 
and  still  more  when  they  are  varied  in  intensity  or  brillian- 
cy, or  both,  as  well  as  contrasted  in  quality. 

4.  That,  as  variety  is  an  exciting  quality,  owing  to  the 
rapid  changes  which  each  point  of  the  retina  undergoes, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


123 


the  change  from  variety  to  sameness  of  color  is  required 
for  repose;  so  that  here,  again,  we  should  imitate  nature,  in 
which  sameness  of  coloring  is  the  rule,  and  variety  the  excep- 
tion; the  former  being  found  in  all  large  and  grand  objects, 
and  the  latter  only  in  small  and  scattered  organisms. 

Many  writers  have  attempted  to  apply  “ the  harmonious” 
theory  of  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  buildings,  without 
any  satisfactory  result. 

Equal-timed  or  equal-spaced  repetition  is  confessedly  beau- 
teous. It  is  adopted  in  all  the  higher  arts,  and  leads  to  the 
rhythm  of  poetry,  or  the  equal  spacing  of  the  windows  of  a 
palace. 

I believe  the  chief  charm  of  this  quality  of  architecture  is 
to  be  traced  to  its  expression  of  courtesy  and  consideration 
for  the  spectator.  There  is  another  kind  of  beauty  in  visi- 
ble objects,  which  is  commonly,  but  perhaps  falsely,  supposed 
to  speak  to  the  eye ; this  is  that  kind  of  symmetry  or  unifor- 
mity which  consists  in  an  exact  correspondence  of  form  be- 
tween the  two  halves  of  an  object.  To  distinguish  it  from 
other  kinds  of  uniformity  we  will  call  it  the  uniformity  of 
halves.  We  need  hardly  observe  that  it  is  the  most  univer- 
sal in  its  nature,  pervading  all  ranks  of  organic  life,  from 
the  leaf  and  the  flower  up  to  man;  and  all  separate  and  dis- 
tinct creatures,  even  when  inorganic,  from  a crystal  to  a 
world.  It  is  to  the  minor  ornaments  of  architecture  that 
we  must  look  for  its  illustration,  and  not  to  general  forms, 
principal  members,  or  any  constructive  features,  because  fit- 
ness of  destination,  definite  expression,  and  other  higher  ex- 
cellences, will  always,  in  them,  interfere  with  and  should 
prevail  over  mere  formal  beauty. 

In  analyzing  such  examples  of  ornamental  forms  we 
shall  find  the  chief  properties  common  to  them  in  all  styles, 
to  be  those  which  are  here  mentioned,  viz  : — 

1.  Equal-spaced  repetition , exemplified  in  all  description  of 
diaper  patterns. 

2.  Uniformity  of  halves;  which  sometimes  has  place  not 


124 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


only  in  one  direction,  or  on  each  side  of  one  axis  or  plane  of 
division,  but  is  related  to  two  such  planes  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  or  to  three,  intersecting  each  other  in  a single 
axle,  and  dividing  the  object  into  six  equal  sectors,  or  to 
four,  five,  or  any  number  of  such  planes,  subject  to  the  same 
condition;  all  which  practices  are  evidently  founded  on  na- 
ture, in  which  a single  plane  of  uniform  division  is  charac- 
teristic of  all  the  higher  classes  of  animals,  and  of  numerous 
classes  of  flowers  and  fruits  (the  leguminosae,  papilionaceae, 
&c.,):  two  such  planes,  or  a double  uniformity,  though  a 
rather  uncommon  arrangement,  is  not  without  example  in 
many  vegetable  objects;  a division  by  three  planes,  or  into 
six  sectors,  pervades  the  flowers  of  monocotyledonous  plants ; 
a fourfold  uniformity,  or  eightfold  division,  runs  through 
those  of  the  cruciferae,  &c.;  and  a fivefold  belongs  to  the 
great  majority  of  dicotyledonous  flowers,  and  to  the  lowest 
or  radiate  class  of  animals. 

3.  Preference  of  curves  to  straight  lines. — Every  eye  pre- 
fers the  patterns  composed  of  curves  to  those  composed  of 
straight  lines,  abstractedly,  without  reference  to  their  situa- 
tion, &c.  ; and  though  every  complete  style  of  architecture 
presents  ornament  or  tracery  of  both  descriptions,  it  is  easily 
seen  that  the  rectilinear  is  introduced  always  from  other 
considerations,  abstract  beauty,  considerations  of  fitness, 
construction,  consistency  of  character,  &c., — or  else  to  give 
value  to  the  more  pleasing  forms. 

To  these  principles  we  may  add, 

4.  Preference  of  curves  of  contrary  flexure  to  those  which 
have  no  such  contrariety;  the  flowing  tracery  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  for  instance,  to  the  (so  called)  geometrical 
tracery  of  the  thirteenth,  which  is  equally  composed  of 
curves,  but  without  points  of  contrary  flexure.  Every  one 
has  heard  of  Hogarth’s  ‘ line  of  beauty.’ 

5.  Preference  of  curves  of  varying  curvature  to  circular 
ones.  The  main  difference  between  Greek  mouldings  and 
Roman  ones,  between  Greek  vases  and  Chinese,  is  that  the 


OF  ARCHITECTURE 


125 


former  are  composed  with  outlines  of  continually  varying 
curvature,  and  the  latter  with  circular  arcs. 

6.  Unity  or  consistency  of  character .- — Mixtilinear  form  or 
ornament  is,  in  general,  less  beautiful  than  either  that  which 
is  composed  entirely  of  straight  lines  or  entirely  of  curves. 
This  will  be  especially  the  case  when  several  straight  lines 
fall  together  in  one  place,  and  several  curves  in  another,  be- 
cause then  the  mixture  of  incongruous  principles  is  most 
obvious.  The  defect  is  best  counteracted  when  the  straight 
and  curved  lines  are  equally  distributed  throughout,  and 
especially  when  a general  principle  is  seen  to  govern  their 
use,  that  is,  when  all  the  straight  parts  have  something  in 
common  besides  straightness , and  all  the  curved  parts  some 
common  quality  besides  their  curvature.  The  same  remarks 
apply  to  the  mixture  of  circular  with  variable  curves,  and,  in 
general,  to  every  attempt  at  mixing  different  styles  of  form. 
It  can  succeed  only  when  some  new  law,  that  did  not  apply 
to  either  of  the  styles  separately,  is  introduced  and  made  to 
govern  their  respective  use,  and  thus  restore  that  consistency 
which  has  been  violated  by  the  mixture;  and  this  law  must 
be  so  extensively  applied  and  strictly  observed,  as  to  be 
quite  obvious  to  the  spectator  at  a glance.  Thus  those 
ingenious  decorators,  the  Arabs,  wishing  to  combine  the 
beauties  and  richness  of  two  kinds  of  ornament,  often  did  so 
without  inconsistency  by  placing  them  on  the  same  surface, 
but  giving  them  different  degrees  of  relief,  or  different  colors, 
so  that  one  appears  superposed  in  front  of  the  other,  without 
interfering  with  it.  The  eye  can  follow  each  separately,  as 
the  ear  follows  the  base  or  treble  of  a complex  piece  of 
music. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  state  collectively  these  proximate 
principles  of  beauty  in  form,  without  being  led  a step  higher, 
to  a generalization,  which  reduces  them  all  to  a broader 
principle,  though  still  only  a proximate  one.  This  has  com- 
monly been  stated  as  the  combination  of  unity  with  variety. 
It  is  best  explained,  perhaps,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Hutcheson, 


126 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


who  states  as  an  axiom,  (with  regard  to  mere  formal  beau- 
ty,) that  where  the  uniformity  is  equal,  the  beauty  of  forms 
is  in  proportion  to  their  variety;  and  when  their  variety  is 
equal,  their  beauty  is  in  proportion  to  their  uniformity. 

Unity  or  uniformity  is  here  taken  in  its  widest  sense,  as 
meaning  oneness  of  any  thing , of  size,  of  form,  of  number,  of 
ratio,  of  succession,  of  any  quality,  or  any  principle  what- 
ever ; it  is,  in  fact,  synonymous  with  method,  order,  law,  or 
consistency.  It  is  so  far  opposed  to  variety,  that  they  can- 
not exist  together  in  regard  to  any  one  quality.  Yet  the 
beauty,  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  consists  not  as  some 
most  erroneously  suppose,  in  keeping  a “ happy  medium”  be- 
tween these  two  opposite  principles.  Such  a rule,  being 
merely  negative,  can  lead  to  no  positive  beauty.  This  con- 
sists not  in  the  avoidance  of  both  the  opposite  qualities,  but 
in  just  the  reverse  of  this,  in  combining  both  in  their  great- 
est possible  perfection, — in  reconciling  the  extremes  of  both. 
Of  course,  this  can  only  be  done  by  the  maintenance  in  all 
the  parts  of  the  composition,  of  perfect  unity  in  regard  to 
some  one  quality  or  circumstance,  with  the  utmost  variety 
in  some  other  quality  or  circumstance.  This  is  necessary  to 
the  display  of  any  beauty,  however  slight;  but  its  degree 
will  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  points  of 
correspondence  or  unity,  and  of  points  of  variety.  Hence 
the  designer  examines  and  analyses  the  various  qualities  or 
circumstances  of  the  parts  of  his  design,  in  order  to  find  as 
many  points  as  possible  in  which  they  may  be  made  to 
resemble  each  other,  or  to  differ.  Moreover,  the  number  of 
points  of  resemblance,  and  of  points  of  difference,  must  be 
about  equal.  If  the  former  preponderate  in  number,  we  say 
the  design  is  monotonous , or  wanting  in  variety.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  points  of  variety  are  greatly  more  numerous 
than  those  of  unity,  we  call  it  confused , or  wanting  in  char- 
acter (i.  e.,  self-consistency.)  These  faults  do  not  imply  an 
absolute  excess  of  unity  in  one  case,  or  variety  in  the  other, 
but  only  an  excess  relatively  to  the  other  quality — in  fact,  a 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


12? 


deficiency  of  that  other  quality.  And  it  would  be  well  if 
these  faults  were  always  so  understood,  and  remedied  not  by 
removing  a point  of  resemblance  in  the  one  case,  or  of  differ- 
ence in  the  other,  but  by  adding  the  contrary, — by  hunting 
out  some  new  point  of  difference  or  resemblance,  instead  of 
abandoning  an  old  one. 

Neither  unity  nor  variety  can  ever  be  carried  too  far,  if, 
for  every  instance  of  the  one,  an  instance  of  the  other  be 
also  found.  It  is  an  error  to  say  that,  in  any  composition, 
one  of  these  qualities  is  in  excess:  it  can  never  be  in  abso- 
lute excess:  it  is  the  other  quality  which  is  in  relative  defi- 
ciency. 

Let  us  now  illustrate  this  principle  by  its  application  to 
the  simplest  cases  of  abstract  beauty  in  nature  and  in  art, 
leaving  the  reader  to  apply  it  to  more  complex  examples. 

It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  absolute  unity,  without 
any  point  of  variety,  can  constitute  beauty  in  any  object. 
We  have  an  instance  of  such  a kind  in  a straight  line  of 
equal  thickness  and  intensity  throughout  its  length.  There 
seem  to  be  cases  where  this  is  admired,  as  in  the  sea-horizon, 
in  a stratiform  cloud,  &c. ; but  we  shall  presently  show  that 
they  would  not  be  considered  beautiful  by  themselves,  and 
only  become  so  by  a relation  with  their  accompaniments. 

The  case  is  very  different  when  the  line  regularly  dimin- 
ishes in  strength  from  one  end  to  the  other,  as  in  the  per- 
spective image  of  a railway  bar,  a distant  glimpse  of  a lake, 
or  the  sea-horizon  in  many  cases.  Here  the  unity  of  direc- 
tion, in  all  parts  of  the  line,  is  accompanied  by  a variation 
in  strength,  and,  again,  by  an  unity  in  the  law  of  this  varia- 
tion. 

Even  without  this  latter  kind  of  unity,  a straight  line, 
varying  in  thickness  irregularly , as  the  angle  of  an  old  but 
firm  building,  is  allowed  to  possess  a beauty  which  it  had  not 
when  new.  How  different  is  the  edge  of  a warped  brick, 
or  an  ill-founded  building,  which  wants  the  unity  of  straight- 
ness. 


128 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


An  irregularly  curved  line  is  destitute  of  beauty  because 
the  variety  (of  direction)  is  obtained  only  at  the  expense  of 
unity:  not  so  with  a circular  arc;  though  the  unity  of  direc- 
tion is  abandoned,  there  is  a substitute  for  it  in  the  unity  of 
curvature.  It  is  the  simplest  of  lines  that  can  be  beautiful 
in  itself  without  the  aid  of  varying  thickness ; for,  while  its 
parts  all  vary  in  one  respect — direction,  they  all  agree  in 
the  rate  of  this  variation,  i.  e.,  in  curvature.  The  beauty  is 
doubled,  however,  by  a regular  variation  in  thickness;  for 
there  are  now  two  points  of  variety,  viz.,  in  direction  and  in 
thickness,  and  also  tvjo  points  of  unity,  a constant  rate  of 
curvature,  and  a constant  law  of  diminution. 

But  the  circular  curve  is  the  least  beautiful  of  all  regular 
curves;  for,  in  all  others,  an  additional  kind  of  variety  is  in- 
troduced, in  the  variation  of  curvature;  and  an  additional 
kind  of  unity,  in  the  constancy  of  the  law  of  this  variation. 
Without  the  latter  circumstance,  no  increase  of  beauty,  but 
the  very  reverse,  would  accrue  from  the  mere  variety ; for  it 
would  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the  unity  of  curvature. 
Thus  the  varied  curvature  in  the  haunches  of  the  Tudor  arch 
is  generally  considered  a defect.  When  similar  lawless  va- 
riations occur  more  than  once,  they  produce  what  is  called  a 
crippled  curve,  the  ugliest  of  all  lines. 

The  circle,  then,  is  excelled  in  beauty  by  all  other  simple 
curves;  but,  fortunately,  perspective  remedies  its  defect,  by 
rendering  its  ocular  image  almost  always  elliptical  or  hyper- 
bolic.* It  is  a very  rare  case  for  the  eye  to  be  exactly  in 
the  axis  where  the  circle  can  be  seen  as  a circle,  and  in  such 
a case  we  never  hear  its  beauty  admired. 

All  other  curves  besides  the  circle  resemble  each  other  as 
regards  the  exhibition  of  unity  and  variety;  and,  accord- 
ingly, we  never  hear  of  any  preference  given  to  one  more 

* Circles  give  a parabolic  or  hyperbolic  perspective  image  when  we  view  the 
interior  of  a domed  building  from  a point  perpendicularly  under  the  eircumfereBC# 
©f  one  of  its  horizontal  circles.  The  visible  portion  of  this  circle  will  then  be  prei» 
jected  as  a parabola,  and  all  larger  horizontal  circles  as  hyperbolas  ; only  thee* 
which  are  smalUrr  than  this,  being  seen  in  the  usual  manner  as  ellipses. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE, 


129 


than  another,  on  account  of  abstract  beauty.  Hay  has 
shown  that  the  most  perfect  forms  of  Greek  pottery  and  or- 
nament may  be  imitated  by  combinations  of  elliptic  arcs. 
So  they  might,  doubtless,  by  arcs  of  any  curve  of  varying 
curvature.  The  parabola  is  admired  in  cascades  and  foun- 
tains; the  catenary , in  drapery  and  festoons;  the  trochoid  and 
epitrochoid , in  penmanship ; the  logarithmic  spiral,  in  shells  and 
volutes;  and  various  kinds  of  elastic  curves,  in  vegetation. 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  repetition  of  similar  ob- 
jects at  equal  distances  has  any  beauty  except  when  seen 
perspectively.  It  is  hardly  ever  possible  (indeed  impossible, 
if  they  be  in  a straight  line)  so  to  view  them  as  to  have 
their  images  formed  on  the  retina,  similar  and  equi-distant. 
Against  unity  of  form  and  of  direction,  then,  we  have  to  set 
off  variety  of  apparent  size  and  apparent  distance  apart ; this 
variety  being  still,  in  each  case,  subject  to  an  uniform  law 
of  increase  or  decrease.  There  are  thus  more  points  of 
unity  than  of  variety;  and,  accordingly,  a series  of  this  kind 
requires  but  little  extension  to  render  it  monotonous. 

If  the  series  be  arranged  in  a regular  curve,  this  deficiency 
of  variety  is  supplied  without  diminishing  the  points  of  unity, 
the  unity  of  direction  being  replaced  by  that  of  curvature, 
&c.,  and  thus  the  beauty  is  greatly  augmented. 

We  may  illustrate  these  principles  by  a figure  (a)  com- 
posed of  concentric  circles  placed  at  random,  and  varying 
irregularly  in  every  thing  except  their  unity  of  form  and 
concentricity.  This  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  any  posi- 
tive beauty,  though  it  would  be  beautiful  by  comparison 
with  a figure  in  which  they  were  either  crippled  or  not  con- 


ISO 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


and  the  spaces  between  them  (as  at  b,)  because  this  is  sim- 
ply substituting  (in  both  alterations)  unity  for  variety, 
which,  in  both  cases,  we  abandon.  But  in  c,  the  two  prin- 
ciples are  reconciled,  the  variety  in  the  intervals  being  ac- 
companied by  the  unity  of  a law  regulating  them  all:  thus  a 
certain  degree  of  beauty  is  produced,  which  is  augmented  by 
the  introduction  of  another  source  of  variety  in  the  unequal 
thicknesses,  and  of  unity  in  the  regulation  of  these  also,  by 
an  uniform  law.  The  example  d is  added  to  show  that  it 
matters  not  how  the  variations  occur,  provided  there  be  as 
many  points  of  resemblance  as  of  difference. 

A series  of  quantities  or  dimensions,  forming  a progres- 
sion of  any  sort,  is  thus  always  beautiful,  however  complex 
may  be  the  law  of  the  series.  But  the  arithmetical  progres- 
sion is  less  beautiful  than  any  other,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  circular  curve  is  less  beautiful  than  any  other.  In 
this , the  direction  is  indeed  continually  varying,  but  always 
at  the  same  rate;  and  in  that , the  successive  terms  of  the 
series  increase  or  diminish  always  by  the  same  increment  or 
decrement.  Both  are  improved,  therefore,  by  exchanging 
this  sameness  (of  the  curvature  in  one  case,  and  the  incre- 
ment in  the  other)  for  variety,  provided  this  be  regulated  by 
one  uniform  law. 

Hence  the  arithmeti-  _ Fig-  2- 

cal  spiral  is  the  least 
beautiful  curve  of  its 
kind,  as  any  one  will 
probably  admit  who 
compares  these  two  examples,  a being  the  ordinary  form 
of  the  Greek  Ionic  volute,  viz.,  a geometrical  or  loga- 
rithmic spiral,  and  b an  imitation  thereof,  as  it  appears 
in  the  temple  of  a “ mixed  order, v at  the  Greek  colony 
of  Selinus,  in  Sicily.  This  is  the  only  instance  I know 
of  an  arithmetical  volute,  a form  well  worthy  of  the  bun- 
gler who  could  design  such  a piece  of  inconsistency  as 
Ionic  columns  supporting  a Doric  entablature.  Nature 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


131 


affords  instances  of  the  geometrical  spiral  in  every  uni- 
valve shell, — of  the  arithmetical  spiral  in  none. 

A kind  of  iron  fence  has  lately  been  introduced,  in  which 
the  horizontal  bars  are  placed  at  progressively  increasing 
distances  from  the  ground  upwards.  It  shows  how  much 
beauty  may  be  added  to  an  object  without  adding  anything 
else,  except  (in  this  case)  stability  and  mechanical  fitness. 

Serial  progressions,  however,  have  little  place  in  archi- 
tecture, at  least  in  the  dimensions  of  principal  parts,  because 
equality  always  answers  the  same  purpose,  the  equal  divi- 
sions being  reduced  by  perspective  to  a progressional  series. 
We  have  an  instance  of  an  actual  series  of  this  kind,  how- 
ever, in  the  stories  of  St.  Bride’s  steeple,  which  form  four 
terms  of  a geometrical  progression  ; and  any  one  may  easily 
convince  himself  that  the  smallest  perceptible  alteration  in 
the  height  of  any  one  of  them  would  destroy  the  beauty  of 
the  whole  ; — a very  different  effect  from  any  that  is  observed 
in  deviations  from  the  “harmonic  proportions,”  on  which 
some  insist  and  place  such  reliance. 

All  the  modes  of  combining  unity  with  variety  hitherto 
noticed,  may  be  included  under  the  term  Gradation.  There 
is,  however,  another  mode  of  effecting  this  object,  on  a 
totally  different  principle.  Where  there  are  only  two  ob- 
jects or  parts  of  one  object  considered,  they  may  be  made  to 
correspond  in  certain  respects,  and  vary  greatly,  or  even  as 
much  as  possible,  in  other  respects  ; and  this  mode  of  recon- 
ciling unity  with  variety  is  termed  Contrast.  It  is  evidently 
opposed  to  gradation , since  the  two  extremes  are  here 
brought  together  without  any  intermediate  softening  or  pre- 
paration. Consequently  there  can  be  no  compromise  between 
the  two  modes  of  treatment.  Whichever  the  designer 
adopts  in  any  particular  case,  that  principle  and  that  alone 
must  be  carried  out.  In  a curved  line  there  is  gradation 
(of  direction), — in  the  meeting  of  two  lines  at  an  angle, 
there  is  contrast.  So  also  in  a curved  surface  there  will  be 
gradation  of  light  and  shade, — in  the  meeting  of  two  planes, 


m 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


contrast  of  tlie  same  qualities.  In  either  case,  the  rounding 
off  the  angle  would  be  an  attempt  to  compromise  between 
these  opposite  principles  of  beauty,  and  would  lead  to  a 
sacrifice  of  both,  without  an  equivalent  ; so  that  we  need 
not  wonder  at  this  practice  never  having  found  favor  in  any 
style  or  in  any  age,  however  depraved  in  taste.  To  this, 
also,  we  may  attribute  the  absence  of  the  hyperbola  from  the 
extensive  list  of  ornamental  curves.  It  seems  the  only  sim- 
ple or  well-known  curve  that  is  banished  from  decorative 
design,  probably  from  its  too  near  approach  to  the  character 
of  an  angle  rounded  off,  affording  neither  the  beauty  of  con- 
trast nor  of  gradation. 

Contrast,  then,  consists  in  a perfect  similitude  between  two 
adjacent  objects  in  certain  respects,  accompanied  by  a wide 
difference  in  some  other  respect,  or  sometimes  in  two  or 
three  other  respects,  (in  which  cases  we  may  term  it  double 
or  treble  contrast,)  but  the  simple  is  more  common.  Resem- 
blances are  quite  as  necessary  as  differences,  and  indeed  must 
be  more  numerous.  There  can  be  no  such  thing  as  contrast 
between  two  things  that  are  altogether  different.  In  most 
contrasts,  they  differ  only  in  one  point,  and  are  alike  in 
every  other. 

The  uniformity  of  halves  derives  its  beauty  from  a single 
contrast  of  the  most  perfect  kind.  In  the  case  of  a plane 
figure,  the  two  parts  are  alike  in  every  respect  except  posi- 
tion. They  are  repetitions  of  the  same  identical  form,  but 
so  placed  that  we  see  the  front  of  the  one  and  the  back  of 
the  other.  In  a solid  body  they  are  contrasted  also  in  their 
mode  of  receiving  the  light,  yet  perfectly  similar  in  form. 

How  much  the  beauty  of  such  forms  depends  on  the  first 
mentioned  contrast  will  appear  by  regarding  those  few  cases 
of  uniformity  of  halves,  in  which  this  contrast  (of  front  and 
back)  is  omitted,  as  in  the  letters  s and  z,  in  which,  however, 
the  halves  have  still  a contrast  of  position.  But  I know  of 
no  natural  form  composed  on  this  principle. 

lu  cases  of  uniformity  related  to  several  planes  of  division, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


133 


i.e.  in  starlike  forms,  the  number  of  repetitions,  or  sectors,  of 
►similar  form,  is  always  even,  and  they  are  alternately  re- 
versed, front  for  back,  in  every  natural  example.  Art,  how- 
ever, in  times  of  depraved  taste,  introduced  as  a novelty, 
forms  of  this  kind  in  which  contrast  is  neglected,  all  the  sec- 
tors presenting  the  same  side  to  the  spectator.  This  gives 
always  the  idea  of  rotation,  whence  the  expression,  a turn- 
ing star  or  flower.  This  kind  of  form,  of  course,  is  proper 
for  a wheel,  but  highly  improper  for  any  part  of  a fixed 
structure.  Its  non-occurrence  in  nature  is  sufficient  to 
prove  its  inferiority  also  as  regards  abstract  beauty. 

Whenever  Nature  has  repeated  sectors  of  similar  form,  in 
this  manner,  without  alternate  opposition,  she  has  supplied 
its  place  by  introducing  another  element  of  variation,  viz., 
in  size.  In  this  way,  the  whole  class  of  univalve  shells  are 
composed,  by  a number  of  sectors  round  an  axis,  all  alike  in 
form,  but  whose  sizes  form  a geometrical  progression. 

The  beauty  of  curves  of  contrary  flexure  (Hogarth’s  prin- 
ciple) generally  arises  also  from  contrast.  Hence  it  is  a mis- 
take to  suppose  that  the  passage  from  convexity  to  conca- 
vity should  be  gradual ; that  is  to  say,  to  say,  that  the  curva- 
ture should  continually  diminish  up  to  that  point  of  flexure, 
become  evanescent  at  that  point,  and  then  increase,  as  in  the 
long  italic  /.  This  is  what  necessarily  occurs  in  all  curves, 
that  have  naturally  a contrary  flexure:  but  though  these 
are  appropriate  to  many  purposes,  and  have  a beauty  of  their 
own,  this  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  flexures  which  arise 
from  the  combination  of  two  curves,  and  is  much  less  frequently 
applicable.  The  former  beauty  is  one  of  gradation;  the  lat- 
ter, one  of  contrast : for  as  the  change  from  one  law  of 
curvature  to  the  other  must  take  place  at  some  definite 
point,  it  must  be  sudden , and  partake  of  the  nature  of 
contrast. 

In  examining  instances  of  this  kind  of  flexure,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  mere  identity  of  direction  in  the  two  curves, 
at  the  point  of  contact,  is  not  always  sufficient  to  prevent 

12 


134 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


their  appearing  disjointed, — that  is, . deficient  in  unity. 
Hence  some  additional  kind  of  unity  should  be  sought  to 
connect  them,  and  this  we  may  find  in  equality  of  curvature; 
besides  which,  the  most  perfect  contrast  requires  similitude  in 
all  points  except  those  which  are  contrasted:  whence  the  con- 
trast of  two  opposite  and  positive*  qualities  (as  convexity 
and  concavity)  will  be  most  perfect  when  they  are  both 
equally  removed  from  the  mean  (which  in  this  case  is 
straightness) ; whence  we  may  infer  that  the  deflexions  of 
the  two  curves  from  their  common  tangent  should  be  ini- 
tially equal, — that  is,  their  curvatures  equal  at  the  point  of 
junction.  Accordingly,  in  examining  forms  of  this  kind,  it 
will  be  found  that  when  faulty,  their  fault  arises  from  the 
radii  of  the  two  curves,  at  their  junction  being  too  unequal; 
and  in  the  Grecian  forms  composed  of  elliptic  arcs,  by  Mr. 
Hay,  it  will  be  found  that  the  most  graceful  bends  are  those 
in  which  the  two  ellipses  touch  ^t  two  points  having  the 
greatest  equality  of  curvature. 

As  the  change  from  one  law  of  curvature  to  another  must 
always  have  the  nature  of  contrast,  there  appears  no  reason 
why  we  should  seek  to  diminish  this  contrast  without  the 
possibility  of  gaining  the  opposite  beauty — that  of  gradation, 
or  continuity;  for  this  can  exist  only  where  the  law  is  con- 
tinuous; or,  in  other  words,  where  the  whole  is  one  curve. 
There  appears,  therefore,  no  foundation  for  the  rule  main- 
tained by  an  eminent  architect,  that  wherever  two  curves 
unite  (not  by  an  angle)  it  should  be  by  a contact  of  the 
second  order.  To  explain  this,  we  must  observe  that  lines 
may  meet  in  an  infinity  of  different  ways.  When  they  coin- 
cide at  a point,  and  have  at  that  point  different  directions , the 
meeting  is  not  called  a contact,  but  a finite  angle.  When 
they  have  at  their  meeting  the  same  direction,  but  different 
curvatures,  it  is  called  a contact  of  the  first  order.  Of  this 
kind  is  the  contact  of  one  circle  with  another,  and  of  a circle 

* This  does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  qualities  of  which  one  is  only  the  negation 
of  the  other  ; as  light  and  shadow,  of  curvature  and  straightness. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


135 


(or  any  conic  section)  with  a straight  tangent;  for  the  cur- 
vature of  this  is  0.  Contacts  of  this  kind  between  two 
curves  must  be  either  external , (where  their  curvatures  are 
in  contrary  directions,  that  is,  one  convex  towards  the  same 
side  that  the  other  is  concave,  or  one  -f-  and  the  other  — , ) 
or  internal , when  both  are  curved  the  same  way. 

But  a contact  of  the  second  order  requires  that  the  two 
lines  shall,  at  their  meeting  point,  coincide  not  only  in  di- 
rection, but  in  curvature.  Hence  there  can  be  no  contact  of 
this  kind  between  two  circles,  (for  if  their  curvatures  were 
equal  and  turned  the  same  way,  they  would  coincide  alto- 
gether,) nor  between  any  conic  section  and  its  tangent,  be- 
cause there  is  no  point,  in  any  conic  section,  that  is  desti- 
tute of  curvature.  But  a curve  that  naturally  has  contrary 
flexure  may  form  this  kind  of  contact  with  a straight  line 
drawn  through  its  point  of  flexure  (for  at  that  point  the  cur- 
vature is  0,  being  at  its  transition  from  -j-  to  — .)  Such 
contact  may  also  be  formed  between  two  conic  sections,  as, 
for  instance,  between  any  point  of  an  ellipse  (not  upon  one 
of  its  axis)  and  its  osculatory  circle,  or  the  circle  which  both 
touches  and  has  equal  curvature  with  that  point  of  the 
ellipse.  Contacts  of  the  second  order  are  neither  external 
nor  internal,  but  always  mixed;  the  curve  which  is  the  outer 
one  before  contact,  becoming  the  inner  one  afterwards. 

But  if  the  circle  osculate  the  ellipse  at  the  end  of  one  of 
its  axes,  the  contact  is  entirely  exterior  to  the  ellipse  if 
made  on  its  side , and  entirely  interior  if  made  on  its  end , and 
in  either  case  it  is  that  kind  of  contact  which  we  have  called 
internal , one  curve  being  within  the  other.  This  is  a case  of 
contact  of  the  third  order,  which  consists  in  the  two  curves 
coinciding  not  only  in  direction  and  in  curvature , but  also  in 
the  rate  of  variation  of  that  curvature.  This  rate  is  in  the 
present  case  0;  for  the  curvature  of  the  circle  is  unvarying, 
and  that  of  the  ellipse  is,  at  these  points,  at  its  maximum  or 
minimum,  and  therefore  neither  increasing  nor  decreasing, 
but  in  the  act  of  passing  from  one  state  into  the  other. 


186 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


So,  also,  when  the  curvatures  are  not  only  equal  and  vary- 
ing  at  the  same  rate,  but  this  rate  of  variation  is  also  fixed 
in  both,  or  varying  at  the  same  rate  in  both,  the  contact 
will  be  of  the  fourth  order;  and  it  is  obvious  that  these 
orders  may  be  extended  ad  infinitum.  We  may  add,  that 
all  contacts  of  an  even  order  must  be  mixed , and  all  those  of 
an  odd  order  must  be  internal  or  external.  Hence,  in  so 
uniting  two  curves  as  to  form  a tl  line  of  beauty,”  or  contrary 
flexure,  the  contact  can  never  be  of  the  second  or  any  even 
order. 

The  abandonment  in  architecture,  therefore,  of  contacts 
of  the  first  order,  would  lead  to  no  little  complexity  in  the 
curves.  Even  in  the  simplest  case, — that  of  the  junction  of 
a curve  with  a straight  line,  (as  at  the  springing  of  an  arch 
from  its  pier, — we  should  have  to  banish  not  only  the  circle, 
but  every  conic  section,  and  use  some  more  complex  curve, 
such  as  should  have  a point  of  infinite  radius  ( i . e.,  of  con- 
trary flexure,  if  continued)  at  the  springing.  These  are  not 
only  unnecessary , but,  I will  venture  to  say,  false  refinements. 
By  attempting  to  conceal  the  change  from  one  line  to  an- 
other, as  if  it  were  a fault,  they  tend  to  make  it  appear  one. 
Now,  if  it  be  a fault,  it  can  never  be  obviated  in  this  way  ; 
for  if  the  contact  were  even  of  the  hundredth  order,  it  would 
still  be  an  abrupt  change  from  one  law  of  curvature  to  an- 
other, or  to  straightness.  That  which  must  be  abrupt,  is 
better  made  as  perfect  a contrast  as  possible,  and  not  as  im- 
perfect as  possible.  The  error  has  arisen  from  inattention 
to  the  fact  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  contrary  flexures,  the 
one  owing  its  beauty  to  gradation,  the  other  to  contrast  ; 
that  the  first  can  only  exist  where  there  is  an  unbroken  con- 
tinuity of  law,— that  is,  where  the  curve  on  both  sides  of 
the  flexure  is  one  curve  ; and  that,  whenever  there  are  two , 
as  there  must  be  some  contrast,  it  should  be  made  as  com- 
plete a contrast  as  possible,  by  making  the  contact  always 
of  the  first  order  ; always  external ; and  the  contrary  curva- 
tures, at  their  junction,  equal. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


131 


If  these  views  of  curvilinear  form  be  right,  it  will  follow 
that  all  internal  contacts,  and  all  osculations  (or  contacts 
of  any  order  above  the  first,)  are  to  be  excluded  from  orna- 
mental design.  This  would  condemn  the  Tudor  arch ; for  in 
that  form  the  change  of  curvature  is  always  made  by  an 
internal  contact  of  two  circles:  and  though  it  was  a capital 
invention  for  its  purpose,  as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter, 
and  the  best  that  could  be  expected  of  a school  of  masons 
who  appear  to  have  been  acquainted  with  no  curve  besides 
the  circle;  yet  its  obstinate  retention  at  the  present  day,  (to 
the  exclusion  of  the  far  more  fit  and  perfectly  graceful  curve 
of  the  parabola, ) only  shows  architecture,  whether  as  an  art 
or  a science,  to  be  at  least  three  centuries  behind  the  rest  of 
the  world. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  has  been  to  consider  the  nature 
and  laws  of  those  kinds  of  beauty  in  architecture  which  be- 
long to  colors  and  to  forms  abstractedly ; or  regarded  apart 
from  the  things  to  which  they  may  be  applied,  and  conse- 
quently without  reference  to  their  destinations;  or  to  the 
beauties  of  expression,  definite  character,  or  fitness.  The 
beauties  here  treated  of  are  those  to  which  Mr.  Fergusson 
gives  the  term  aesthetic,  or  sensuous,  but  it  has  been  here 
attempted  to  be  shown  that  this  term  applies,  in  strictness, 
only  to  the  beauties  of  color,  and  that  those  of  form  are 
always  addressed  to  the  mind,  though  they  constitute  the 
lowest  class  of  excellences  so  addressed  ; ana  in  as  far  as 
they  make  no  attempt  at  definite  expression,  or  the  excite- 
ment of  a definite  emotion,  do  not,  according  to  the  views 
explained  in  our  former  chapter,  entitle  the  art  in  which 
they  are  found  to  the  appellation  of  a Fine  Art. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Different  hinds  of  Beauty , of  Sublimity , and  of  Picturesqueness — 
« Their  Characteristics. 

It  is  the  business  of  good  taste  to  estimate  each  kind  of 
beauty  or  excellence  in  its  true  relative  value,  so  as  never  to 


138 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


sacrifice  a higher  beauty  to  a lower,  or  one  more  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  the  merely  sensual,  but  always  the  reverse. 

As  the  merely  sensuous  must  always  give  place  to  the 
intellectual,  where  they  are  incompatible;  so  must  all  the 
beauties  mentioned  in  our  last  chapter,  not  merely  those  of 
color,  but  those  of  unmeaning  form,  gradated  and  contrasted 
curvature,  give  way,  when  necessary,  to  those  of  definite 
character  and  fitness. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  distinction  of  character  in 
beauty  of  every  kind,  is  into  what  may  be  called  the  bold  or 
powerful,  and  the  gentle  or  delicate  styles  of  beauty.  The 
bull  and  the  stag,  the  oak  and  the  palm,  the  rocky  mountains 
and  the  swelling  hills,  the  heroic  and  the  pastoral  poem,  the 
Hercules  and  the  Apollo,  the  painting  of  M.  Angelo  and  that 
of  Titian, — these  are  a few  examples  from  the  different  de- 
partments of  nature  and  art,  that  will  illustrate  the  distinc- 
tion here  alluded  to. 

It  is  hardly  possible  not  to  observe  that  these  two  oppo- 
site kinds  of  beauty  in  visible  objects  are  connected  with  two 
opposite  qualities  of  outline,  or  rather  two  principles  in  the 
composion  of  forms.  With  regard  to  the  former  or  more 
partial  view  of  the  subject,  Alison  says,  “ Simple  forms,  then, 
may  be  considered  as  described  either  by  angular  or  winding 
lines.  These  different  forms  seem  to  me  to  be  connected  in 
our  minds  with  very  different  associations,  or  to  be  expressive 
to  us  of  very  different  qualities.  I shall  beg  leave  to  men- 
tion some  of  these,  without  pretending  to  a complete  enume- 
ration. 

“ 1.  The  greater  part  of  those  bodies  in  nature,  which 
possess  hardness,  strength,  or  durability,  are  distinguished 
by  angular  forms.  The  greater  part  of  those  bodies,  on  the 
contrary,  which  possess  weakness,  fragility,  or  delicacy,  are 
distinguished  by  winding  or  curvilinear  forms.  In  the  mineral 
kingdom,  all  rocks,  stones,  and  metals,  the  hardest  and  most 
durable  bodies  we  know,  assume  universally  angular  forms. 
In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  all  strong  and  durable  plants  are, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


139 


in  general,  distinguished  by  similar  forms.”  [He  might  have 
said  always,  in  their  principal  or  structural  parts.]  “The 
feebler  and  more  delicate  race  of  vegetables,  on  the  contrary, 
are  mostly  distinguished  by  winding  forms.  In  the  animal 
kingdom,  in  the  same  manner,  strong  and  powerful  animals 
are  generally  distinguished  by  angular  forms ; feeble  and 
delicate  animals,  by  forms  of  the  contrary  kind.”  To  this 
might  be  added  the  example  of  the  human  figure,  in 
which,  as  every  beginner  in  drawing  knows,  the  masculine 
outlines  are  those  which  always  present  the  nearest  approach 
to  angularity, — the  feminine,  most  roundness  and  contrary 
flexures. 

The  same  author  continues — “ 2.  In  all  those  bodies  which 
have  a progress,  or  which  grow  and  decay  within  our  ob- 
servation, the  same  character  of  form  is  observable.  In  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  the  infancy  or  youth  of  plants  is,  in 
general,  distinguished  by  winding  forms.  The  infancy  and 
youth  of  animals  is,  in  the  same  manner,  distinguished  by 
winding  or  serpentine  forms  ; their  nature  and  perfect  age, 
by  forms  more  direct  and  angular.  In  consequence  of  this 
connexion,  forms  of  the  first  kind  become,  in  such  cases,  ex- 
pressive to  us  of  infancy  and  tenderness  and  delicacy  ; and 
those  of  the  second  kind,  of  maturity  and  strength  and  vigor. 

“ 3.  Besides  these  very  obvious  associations,  it  is  also  to 
be  observed,  that  from  the  sense  of  touch,  angular  forms  are 
expressive  to  us  of  roughness,  sharpness,  harshness  ; winding 
forms,  on  the  contrary,  of  softness,  smoothness,  delicacy,  and 
fineness  ; and  this  connexion  is  so  permanent,  that  we  imme- 
diately infer  the  existence  of  these  qualities  when  the  bodies 
are  only  perceived  by  the  eye.  There  is  a very  strong  analogy 
between  such  qualities,  as  perceived  by  the  sense  of  touch, 
and  certain  qualities  of  mind,  as,  in  all  languages,  such  quali- 
ties are  expressed  by  terms  drawn  from  the  perceptions  of 
the  external  sense.  Such  forms,  therefore,  when  presented 
to  the  eye,  not  only  lead  us  to  infer  those  material  qualities 
which  are  perceived  by  the  sense  of  touch,  but,  along  with 


140 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


these,  to  infer  also  those  qualities  of  mind  which  from  analogy 
are  signified  by  such  qualities  of  matter,  and  to  feel  from 
them  some  degree  of  that  emotion  which  these  dispositions 
of  mind  themselves  are  fitted  to  produce.  In  all  languages, 
figurative  expressions  of  a similar  kind  will  be  found  ; and 
whoever  attends  either  to  his  own  feelings,  or  to  the  mean- 
ing which  men  in  general  annex  to  such  words  in  applying 
them  to  forms,  will,  I believe,  be  convinced,  that  the  emo- 
tion which  they  signify,  and  are  intended  to  signify,  is  found- 
ed upon  the  associated  qualities,  and  very  different  from  the 
mere  agreeable  or  disagreeable  sensation  which  the  material 
qualities  alone  convey. 

“4.  The  observations  which  I have  now  made  relate  prin- 
cipally to  simple  curves,  or  to  forms  in  which  a single  curva- 
ture takes  place,  as  the  curve  of  the  weeping  willow,  of  the 
young  shoots  of  trees,  of  the  stem  of  the  tulip,  and  the  lily 
of  the  valley.  There  is  another  species  of  form,  commonly 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  winding  or  serpentine 
form,  in  which  different  curves  take  place,  or  in  which  a 
continued  line  winds  into  several  curvatures.  With  this 
form  I apprehend  we  have  another  and  a very  important  as- 
sociation, I mean  that  of  ease.  From  what  cause  this  asso- 
ciation arises,  I will  not  now  stop  to  inquire  ; but  I conceive 
every  one  must  have  observed,  that  wherever  we  find  vege- 
tables or  any  other  delicate  or  attenuated  body  assume  such 
a form,  we  are  impressed  with  the  conviction  of  its  being 
easy,  agreeable  to  their  nature,  and  free  from  force  or  con- 
straint. On  the  contrary,  when  such  bodies,  in  the  line  of 
their  progress,  assume  angular  forms,  we  have  a strong  im- 
pression of  the  operation  of  force,  of  something  that  either 
prevents  them  from  their  natural  direction,  or  that  constrains 
them  to  assume  an  unnatural  one.  That  winding  forms  are 
thus  expressive  to  us  of  volition  and  ease,  and  angular  forms 
of  the  operation  of  force  or  constraint,  appears  from  a singu- 
lar circumstance  in  language,  viz.,  that,  in  general,  all  the 
former  directions  are  expressed  by  verbs  in  the  active  voice, 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


141 


— a river  winds,  a vine  wreaths  itself  about  the  elm,  a flower 
bends,  &c.;  while  on  the  other  hand,  all  directions  of  the 
latter  kind  are  expressed  in  general  by  the  passive  voice  of 
verbs.”  [The  oak  is  gnarned,  the  river  is  suddenly  deflected, 
the  stem  is  contorted,  &c.]  “ I believe,  also,  I may  appeal 

to  the  observation  of  the  reader,  whether  from  the  winding 
of  a river,  of  the  ivy,  or  of  the  tendrils  of  the  vine,  he  has 
not  an  impression  of  ease,  of  freedom,  of  something  agree- 
able to  the  object;  and  whether  in  the  contrary  forms,  in 
such  cases,  he  has  not  an  impression  of  uneasiness  from  the 
conviction  of  force  having  been  applied,  or  some  obstacle 
having  occurred  to  constrain  them  to  assume  a direction 
unnatural  to  them.  In  general,  therefore,  I apprehend  that 
winding  or  serpentine  forms  are  expressive  to  us  of  ease,  and 
angular  forms,  of  force  or  constraint.” 

Nature’s  general  mode  of  expressing  strength  and  the  more 
exciting  qualities  being  by  angularity ; and  her  general  mode 
of  expressing  delicacy  and  the  soothing  qualities,  by  curva- 
ture ; we  may  conclude  that  there  must  be  a reason  for  this, 
— that  these  qualities  of  form  must,  in  themselves,  have  a 
connexion  with  these  characters  and  emotions  of  mind,  inde- 
pendently of  all  association  with  natural  objects;  so  that  we 
should  perceive  the  difference  even  if  we  had  never  seen 
natural  objects.  This  I conceive  to  be  the  case,  for  the 
following  reason  : Angles  are  instances  of  the  most  abrupt 
contrast  between  the  directions  of  their  component  lines, 
while  curves  owe  their  beauty  to  gradation.  Of  these  two 
qualities,  contrast  is  certainly  that  calculated  to  excite  ; and 
gradation,  that  calculated  to  soothe. 

If  this  view  of  the  case  be  correct,  it  will  follow,  that  all 
other  kinds  of  contrast,  to  whatever  sense  addressed,  will 
partake  of  the  same  general  character  of  severe  beauty,  as 
angularity  in  form ; and  that  gradation  or  modulation,  wher- 
ever found,  will  express  the  gentler  qualities,  as  well  as  cur- 
vature. Now  let  us  see  how  this  holds  good  in  the  other 
departments  of  nature  and  art,  apart  from  form 


142 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


And  first,  of  light  and  shade ; it  is  plain  that  those  solids 
which  possess  straight  and  angular  outlines  will  generally 
possess  plane  surfaces,  meeeing  in  edges  or  nooks.  Here, 
then,  the  two  planes  that  meet  at  any  edge  or  nook  will 
rarely  receive  equal  degrees  of  illumination, — often  will  one 
be  in  broad  sunshine,  and  the  other  in  its  own  shadow.  In 
no  case,  however,  whether  the  difference  of  luminosity  be 
great  or  little,  will  there  be  any  softening  or  gradation  from 
one  into  the  other,  but  always  an  abrupt  contrast.  Bodies 
of  curved  outline,  on  the  other  hand,  will  generally  possess 
curved  surface,  every  point  of  which,  being  differently  in- 
clined to  the  incident  rays,  receives  a degree  of  light  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  the  points  on  either  side  of  it,  so 
that  the  whole  surface  glows  with  continued  gradations  pass- 
ing from  the  brightest  point  through  all  intermediate  tints 
into  complete  shade,  but  without  any  line  of  division,  or  any 
contrast.  Thus  the  same  qualities  of  figure  which  most  con- 
duce to  angularity  of  outline,  conduce  also  to  contrasts  of 
light  and  shade  on  the  surface;  and  those  which  accompany 
curvature  of  outline  lead  to  gradated  shadowing. 

The  simple  cone,  and  the  cylinder  with  flat  ends,  are  two 
of  the  most  unpleasing  forms  in  building,  (as  may  be  seen  by 
most  of  the  hideous  additions  with  which  we  crowd  the  tops 
of  our  finest  buildings,  because  Architecture  has  not,  since 
the  time  of  the  Greeks,  found  time  to  discover  how  to  build 
chimneys.)  This  want  of  character  in  the  two  forms  in  ques- 
tion, I attribute  to  the  incongruity  existing  between  an 
angular  outline  and  a modulated  light  and  shade.  The  con- 
vex roofs  on  angular  plans,  common  in  France  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  are  generally  disliked,  probably  from 
the  opposite  kind  of  inconsistency — curvature  of  outline  with 
contrasted  light  and  shade. 

Bocky  scenery  commonly  owes  its  severe  and  grand  cha- 
racter less  to  angularity  of  outline  than  to  the  sharply  con- 
trasted light  and  shade  arising  from  the  prevalence  of  plane 
surfaces  and  cuboidal  nooks  and  edges.  How  opposite  in 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


143 


character  is  the  beauty  of  curved  undulating  hills,  which 
even  when  magnified  to  the  scale  of  the  Pyrenees,  are  rather 
beautiful  than  grand;  and  this  also  is  due  more  to  the  sha- 
dowing than  to  the  outline,  since  it  is  conspicuous  even  when 
the  sky-line  is  straight,  angular,  or  absent  from  the  view, 
but  can  hardly  be  rendered  in  an  outline  drawing  only. 

Next,  with  regard  to  color,  the  great  philosopher  of 
painting  says — “ Grandeur  of  effect  is  produced  by  two  dif- 
ferent ways,  which  seem  entirely  opposed  to  each  other. 
One  is,  by  reducing  the  colors  to  little  more  than  chiaro- 
scuro, which  was  often  the  practice  of  the  Bolognian  schools; 
and  the  other,  by  making  the  colors  very  distinct  and  forcible, 
such  as  we  see  in  those  of  Rome  and  Florence;  but  still  the 
presiding  principle  of  both  those  manners  is  simplicity.  Cer- 
tainly nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  monotony ; and  the 
distinct  blue,  red,  and  yellow  colors,  which  are  seen  in  the 
draperies  of  the  Roman  and  Florentine  schools,  though  they 
have  not  that  kind  of  harmony  which  is  produced  by  a 
variety  of  broken  and  transparent  colors,  have  that  effect  of 
grandeur  which  was  intended.  Perhaps  these  distinct  colors 
strike  the  mind  more  forcibly,  from  there  not  being  any  great 
union  between  them  ; as  martial  music,  which  is  intended  to 
rouse  the  nobler  passions,  has  its  effect  from  the  sudden  and 
strongly  marked  transitions  from  one  note  to  another,  which 
that  style  of  music  requires  ; whilst  in  that  which  is  required 
to  move  the  softer  passions,  the  notes  imperceptibly  melt  into 
one  another.”* 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  term  broken  seems  applied 
by  painters  chiefly  to  colors  that  are  made,  at  their  junc- 
tion, to  melt  gradually  one  into  the  other,  or  to  glow  with 
a rainbow-like  gradation  of  tints,  the  effect  of  supposed 
reflections  of  colored  light  from  neighboring  objects,  as  in  the 
ornamental  style  of  painting  of  the  Yenetians,  of  whom  the 
same  admirable  critic  observes,  “ Though  in  this  respect  the 
Yenetians  must  be  allowed  extraordinary  skill,  yet  even 


* Reynolds,  Discourse  iv. 


144 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


that  skill,  as  they  have  employed  it,  will  but  ill  correspond 
with  the  great  style.  Their  coloring  is  not  only  too  brilliant, 
but,  I will  venture  to  say,  too  harmonious  to  produce  that 
solidity,  steadiness,  and  simplicity  of  effect,  which  heroic 
subjects  require.” 

The  beautiful  analogy,  above  pointed  out  by  this  master, 
between  the  forcible  and  gentle  styles  of  coloring,  and  those 
of  music,  will  convince  the  reader  that  in  this  latter  art  also, 
though  addressed  to  us  through  a different  sense,  the  oppo- 
site principles  of  contrast  and  gradation  retain  the  same 
distinctive  qualities.  I doubt  not  that  numerous  passages 
will  occur  to  the  reader  to  prove  that  in  poetry  also  the 
grander  styles  abound  in  contrasted  ideas,  antitheses,  and 
truths  set  forth  in  apparent  verbal  contradictions  ; while  in 
the  softer  and  more  fascinating  compositions,  such  contrasts 
are  avoided,  and  the  transition  from  one  image  to  another 
is  made  gradually  and  with  preparation. 

We  may  conclude  on  the  whole  that  the  distinction  of 
character  between  angular  and  curvilinear  forms  is  only  a 
particular  case  of  the  general  distinction  between  things  that 
combine  order  and  variety  by  the  principle  of  contrast,  and 
those  which  combine  them  by  the  principle  of  gradation. 
It  must  be  observed  that  the  general  neglect  of  this  source 
of  different  expressions  in  abstract  form,  must  be  attributed 
to  the  fact  that  architecture  is  the  only  art  to  which  it  ap- 
plies. Neither  the  sculptor  nor  the  painter  has  to  study  the 
differences  of  character  belonging  to  the  differences  of  form, 
in  general,  but  only  in  the  particular  species  or  class  of  ob- 
jects which  he  is  representing.  He  has  to  discover  not  what 
varieties  of  form  most  conduce  to  a particular  expression  ; 
but  what  varieties  of  human  form  are  most  associated  there- 
with, because  most  frequently  accompanied  by  the  quality  or 
emotion  he  would  depict.  His  discriminations  of  form  must 
doubtless  be  incomparably  nicer  than  the  architect  requires, 
simply  because  they  are  all  comprised  within  such  incompa- 
rably narrower  limits.  Instead  of  being  free  to  range 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


145 


through  universal  nature,  not  only  through  all  existing  but 
all  possible  forms,  this  choice  is  confined  to  the  limits  to 
which  Nature  has  confined  herself  in  a single  species;  so 
that,  compared  to  the  architect,  he  resembles  a musician 
composing  for  an  instrument  whose  range  is  exceedingly 
small  ; or  to  a draughtsman  who  is  prohibited  the  use  of 
white  or  black,  and  confined  to  a limited  scale  of  tints : of 
course  he  must  compensate  for  this  limitation  of  range  by 
a more  nice  discrimination.  But,  besides  this,  the  varieties 
of  expression  in  animated  forms  depend  on  other  principles 
than  those  applying  to  forms  in  general.  As  the  chemist 
and  physicist  find  the  laws  they  have  deduced  from  dead  mat- 
ter, all  applicable,  indeed,  to  living  organisms,  but  so  modi- 
fied by  the  superaddition  of  new  and  special  laws  as  to  be 
sometimes  hardly  recognised;  .so  we  should  err  in  applying 
the  laws  of  expression,  in  abstract  form,  to  imitations  of 
living  forms,  whose  expressions  arise  from  associations  more 
special,  more  narrow  and  concrete,  but,  at  the  same  time,  more 
powerful,  and  generally  quite  overpowering  those  which 
might  arise  from  the  general  laws  applicable  to  all  forms 
alike;  whence  it  happens,  that  the  study  of  these  general 
laws  is,  if  not  useless,  at  least  unnecessary,  to  the  professors 
of  special  design  (painters  and  sculptors),  -and  has  thence 
fallen  into  neglect  with  the  professors  of  abstract  design 
(architects  and  decorators) ; but  we  shall  endeavor  hereafter 
to  show,  that  only  by  attention  to  these  laws  have  the  styles 
wThich  we  blindly  admire,  miscopy,  and  misapply,  been  ori- 
ginated and  perfected. 

If  it  be  granted,  then,  which  I think  admits  of  no  doubt, 
that  in  all  unmeaning  things,  ( i.e . all  those  which  do  not  af- 
fect us  by  association, ) and  in  all  the  sensible  qualities  of 
such  things,  as  form,  shading,  color,  and  sound,  the  two 
principles  of  contrast  and  gradation  are  expressive  of  oppo- 
site qualities — the  first  being  grand,  forcible,  and  exciting; 
the  other,  elegant,  gentle,  and  soothing — it  will  follow,  that 
in  applying  this  rule  to  the  most  varied  and  precisely  definar 

13 


146 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ble  of  the  above-named  properties,  (that  of  form,)  we  may 
discriminate  between  the  two  extreme  styles  of  form,  or 
those  which  carry  out  the  said  principle  to  their  fullest  pos- 
sible extent,  several  intermediate  steps,  several  varieties  of 
form,  which,  by  approaching  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  simply 
severe,  or  to  the  merely  elegant,  without  going  to  those  ex- 
tremes, will  be  fitted  for  various  purposes,  to  which  the 
extreme  modes  of  treatment  would  be  improper. 

First,  then,  to  decide  what  is  the  absolute  extreme  in  the 
application  of  the  principle  of  contrast.  All  curves,  being 
instances  of  the  contrary  principle — gradation,  are  evidently 
excluded;  the  forms,  therefore,  must  be  composed  of  straight 
lines  and  angles.  All  angles  are  contrasts,  but  all  are  not 
equally  so.  The  contrast  between  the  directions  of  the  two 
lines,  is  evidently  smallest  in  the  smallest  and  largest  angles. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  greatest  difference  that  can  exist  be- 
tween two  directions,  is  perpendicularity.  Fight  angles, 
then,  present  a stranger  contrast  than  any  other  angles. 
Thus,  plane  figures  will  most  powerfully  carry  out  this  prin- 
ciple when  they  are  entirely  rectilinear  and  rectangular. 
But  in  proceeding  from  plane  figures,  to  the  more  compli- 
cated case  of  solid  bodies,  we  have  to  consider  not  only  the 
apparent  outline,  as  seen  from  various  points  of  view,  but 
also  the  light  and  shade,  which  often  conduces  more  to  the 
general  character  at  first  sight,  especially  in  larg«  objects, 
than  the  outline  itself.  Curved  surfaces,  of  course,  are  to 
be  avoided;  but  what  should  be  the  prevailing  angl^  of  the 
edges  or  nooks  where  two  planes  meet  ? At  first  view  it 
might  appear  that  the  greatest  contrast  of  light  and  shade 
would  be  insured  by  the  most  acute  arrises ; the  greatest  pos- 
sible difference  of  illumination  being  that  which  occurs  be- 
tween a plane  exposed  perpendicularly  to  the  sun’s  rays,  and 
the  lad:  of  the  same  plane,  or  a parallel  one.  But  then  it 
must  be  remembered  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  both  these 
planes  at  once,  and  that  the  smaller  the  angle  between  the 
two  planes,  the  smaller  the  chance  of  an  eyQ  being  so  situ- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


m 


ated  as  to  see  them  both.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larger 
the  angle  the  smaller  the  chance  of  the  sun  being  so  situated 
as  to  shine  perpendicularly  on  one,  without  illuminating  the 
other;  and  when  the  angle  is  larger  than  90  degrees  this  will 
be  impossible.  An  obtuse  edge  or  nook,  then,  can  never  exhibit 
the  maximum  of  contrast  between  complete  light  and  complete 
shade,  though  every  right  angle  and  acute  one  may  do  so,  and 
the  more  acute  the  more  frequently  will  this  happen,  but  the 
less  frequently  will  it  be  seen.  On  the  whole,  then,  it  may  be 
concluded  (and,  indeed,  might  easily  be  mathematically 
proved)  that  the  greatest  chance  of  powerful  contrasts  occur- 
ring and  being  seen , will  be  in  the  case  of  a rectangular  arris. 

The  solid  figures,  then,  that  most  completely  carry  out  the 
principle  of  contrast,  will  have  plane  surfaces,  and  rectangular 
edges,  or  nooks.  This  is  the  case  with  most  rocks,  (especially 
the  older  limestones,  the  grandest,  perhaps,  of  them  all,)  in 
a remarkably  uniform  manner.  The  requirements  of  organic 
bodies  generally  render  planes  and  edges  inapplicable  ; but 
yet,  in  their  outlines,  we  shall  perceive  the  grander  and  more 
powerful  objects,  in  both  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms, 
to  be  characterized,  not  only  (as  Alison  remarked)  by 
angles,  but  chiefly  by  right  angles.  Such  are  the  junctions, 
and  even  chief  bends,  of  the  trunk  and  branches  in  the  giants 
of  the  forest, — the  oak,  and  the  still  mightier  cotton  tree. — 
How  different  is  the  effect  of  generally  oblique  junctions  ; 
as  in  the  elm,  many  pines,  and  most  smaller  trees  and  shrubs. 
In  the  most  powerful  animals,  and  even  the  most  sturdy 
varieties  of  generally  weaker  species,  the  straight  lines  and 
right  angles  of  the  outline  must  have  struck  every  one.  In 
the  rhinoceros,  the  ox,  and  the  bull-dog,  this  is  very  obvious. 
There  is  also  less  curvature  (or,  at  least,  less  convexity)  of 
Surface  in  such  organisms,  than  in  the  feebler  and  gentler 
species  ; for  it  may  be  remarked,  that  though  all  curved  sur- 
face introduces  gradation  of  light  and  shade,  concavity  does 
so  to  a much  less  extent  than  convexity,  for  the  whole  or 
great  part  of  a concavity  may  often  be  thrown  into  equable 


148 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


shadow,  (as  we  often  see  in  the  plates  of  a Doric  column,) 
while  a convexity  must  always  present  soft  gradation.  Con- 
cavity also  necessarily  leads  to  the  increase  of  edges,  and 
their  consequent  contrasts,  but  convexity  to  their  diminution. 
So  prejudicial  is  smooth  convexity  to  the  kind  of  expression 
now  under  consideration,  that  nature  seems  to  avoid  or 
disguise  it  by  all  sorts  of  expedients  ; as  rugged  bark,  shaggy 
coats,  marked  muscles,  and  the  folds  of  the  rhinoceros’  hide. 

Rectilinear  but  oMique-angled  form  may  be  regarded  as  a 
style  one  step  removed  from  the  severity  and  grandeur  of 
the  exclusively  right-angled.  It  is  exemplified  in  slate  rocks, 
(less  grand  than  those  of  limestone,  notwithstanding  their 
greater  scale  and  primitive  character, ) also  in  the  structural 
parts  of  nearly  all  plants  not  remarkable  for  sturdiness  and 
durability.  It  may  further  be  remarked,  that  the  character 
of  grandeur  is  always  diminished,  and  that  of  elegance 
increased,  by  the  introduction  of  gradated  systems  of  lines. 
In  the  rectangular  style  such  things  can  hardly  exist.  The 
only  kind  of  gradation  we  can  have,  is  that  of  a progressional 
series  of  dimensions  ; but  when  once  oblique  angles  are 
admitted,  there  can  be  sets  of  lines  exhibiting  a gradated 
series,  not  only  of  dimensions,  but  of  directions  also.  This 
is  the  case  whenever  they  form  a series  of  equal  or  regularly 
gradated  angles,  as  in  radiating  from  a centre,  forming  any 
star-like  or  flower-like  figure,  or  any  series  of  equal  or 
regularly  graduated  bends,  at  equal  or  regularly  graduated 
distances,  as  in  a portion  of  a polygon,  either  regular,  or 
such  as  might  be  inscribed  in  any  curve.  In  fact,  such 
arrangements  will  always  suggest  the  idea  of  a curve,  and 
we  are  affected  by  the  expression,  not  only  of  what  exists  in 
any  form,  but  also  of  whatever  is  suggested  to  the  eye  by  it. 
Thus  in  even  the  most  exclusively  rectangular  design,  a step- 
like succession  of  a few  zig-zags,  either  equal  or  regularly 
gradated,  will  immediately  suggest  the  appearance  of  an 
oblique  line  or  surface,  and  will  therefore  lose  a portion  of 
the  rectangular  character  ; and  in  that  proportion  fall  off  a 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


149 


little  from  grandeur  towards  elegance.  So  also  in  oblique- 
angled  design,  any  admission  of  the  principle  of  gradation, 
as  by  fan-like,  polygonal,  or  curve-like  arrangements,  will  so 
far  depart  from  the  severe  character,  as  to  bring  us  close 
upon  the  verge  of  curvilinear  design.  It  may  be  observed 
that  whenever  small,  short-lived,  or  delicate  plants  are  com- 
posed of  straight  lines,  they  are  made  to  abound  in  these 
regularly  gradated  arrangements,  either  radiating  or  curve- 
suggesting.  The  equisetum  is  an  instance  where  both  are 
fully  carried  out.  In  the  ferns  also  the  straightness  and 
angularity  of  detail  (otherwise  so  contradictory  to  the  grace- 
ful curvature  of  the  general  forms)  is  modified  by  the  copious 
introduction  of  the  principle  of  gradation,  not  indeed  in 
directions , but  in  dimensions , with  a degree  of  regularity  and 
uniformity  perhaps  unparalleled. 

From  such  examples  as  the  equisetum,  the  transition  to 
curvilinear  design  is  hardly  perceived.  Here  it  is  observable 
that  those  curve  compositions  will  contain  most  of  the 
principle  of  contrast  and  least  of  gradation,  which  contain 
most  angles  and  fewest  contrary  flexures  ; for  though  the 
latter  must  perhaps  be  regarded  (at  least  when  composed  of 
two  curves)  as  extremely  delicate,  or  infinitesimal  cases  of 
contrast,  yet  associations  drawn  from  natural  objects  have 
so  taught  us  to  connect  them  with  every  thing  soft,  fragile, 
and  weak,  that  they  are,  and  always  must  be,  the  variety  of 
form  most  removed  from  the  severe  and  exciting,  and  most 
completely  embodying  the  elegant  and  soothing  qualities. — - 
Accordingly  it  appears  that,  the  varieties  of  Gothic  tracery 
in  which  this  king  of  form  is  introduced,  (as  the  English 
foliated  and  French  flamboyant,)  are  always  regarded  as 
something  more  light,  delicate,  and  fanciful,  than  the  pre- 
ceding varieties,  which  do  not  contain  less  curvature,  but 
whose  curves  are  united  only  by  angles  and  cusps,  instead  of 
by  contrary  flexures. 

A further  distinction  must  still  be  made  between  artificial 
contrary  flexures,  or  those  composed  of  two  curves,  and 


150 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


natural  ones,  or  those  in  which  the  same  curve  (with  the 
same  equation)  continues  throughout.  We  considered  this 
distinction  in  our  last  chapter,  and  may  now  observe  that 
the  former  class  (the  artificial  or  contrasted)  were  the  only 
“ lines  of  beauty’7  known  to  or  employed  by  the  Gothic 
artists,  (except  of  course  in  imitative  sculpture,)  and  that 
the  latter  (the  natural  or  gradated)  were  the  only  ones  used 
by  the  Greeks,  or  by  nature,  as  far  as  we  have  the  means  of 
tracing.  To  this  class  belong  all  the  natural  forms  of  the 
animal  world  ; as  all  those  of  the  mineral  belong,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  the  rectilinear  and  angular  class. 

Forms  may  be  divided,  then,  as  regards  their  inherent  or 
essential  expression,  (apart  from  association,)  into  at  least 
five  classes,  according  to  their  degrees  of  contrast  or 
gradation  ; from  the  most  grand,  severe,  and  forcible,  to  the 
most  elegant,  fanciful,  and  delicate.  Thus  we  may  arrange  : 

I.  Rectilinear  and  rectangular  forms. 

IT.  Rectilinear  but  oblique-angled  forms. 

III.  Curvilinear  forms  without  contrary  flexures. 

IV.  Curvilinear  forms  with  artificial  contrary  flexures. 

V.  Curvilinear  forms  with  natural  contrary  flexures. 

In  most  complicated  productions,  whether  of  nature  or 
of  art,  we  of  course  find  several  or  even  all  these  classes  of 
form  united.  Let  us  inquire,  then,  to  what  differemt  parts  of 
such  a composition  the  different  classes  of  form  are  natu- 
rally and  essentially  best  adapted. 

Alison  has  the  following  correct  remarks  on  this  subject  : 
“ The  great  constituent  parts  of  every  building  require  di- 
rect and  angular  lines,  because  in  such  parts  we  require  the 
expression  of  stability  and  strength.  * * * A 

balustrade  might  with  equal  propriety  be  finished  in  waving 
lines,  but  certainly  would  not  be  beautiful.  A twisted  co- 
lumn, though  affording  very  pleasant  curves  to  the  eye,  is 
acknowledged  to  be  less  beautiful  than  the  common  and 
regular  one.  * * * It  deserves  to  be  remarked, 

that  the  form  of  the  great  constituent  parts  of  all  vegeta- 
bles, whether  strong  or  delicate,  is  nearly  the  same;  the 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


151 


growth  of  the  stem  and  the  direction  of  the  branches  being 
in  both  alike,  and  in  both  also  either  in  straight  or  in  angu- 
lar lines.  It  is  principally  in  the  more  delicate  parts  of  the 
first,  in  the  young  shoots,  and  in  the  foliage,  that  they  devi- 
ate from  this  form  and  assume  winding  or  curvilinear  direc- 
tions. 

It  may  be  taken,  then,  as  a principle  hardly  admitting  of 
question,  that,  as  in  nature,  so  in  art,  the  graver  and 
more  forcible  varieties  of  form  should  in  every  case  pre- 
vail, most  in  the  ruling  and  structural  parts  of  a work, 
and  that  the  more  elegant  varieties  should  find  their 
place  chiefly  in  the  ornamental  details.  In  all  the  most  ap- 
proved works,  of  whatever  style,  this  will  be  found  an  invio- 
lable rule.  Whether  a portion  only,  or  all  of  the  five  classes 
of  form  be  employed,  the  class  nearest  the  beginning  of  the 
above  list  will  be  found  in  the  ruling  forms  and  divisions; 
and  that  placed  latest  in  our  list  will  be  confined  to  the 
smallest  and  most  ornamental  parts ; the  intermediate  class  or 
classes  being  found  in  features  of  an  intermediate  degree  of 
importance. 

In  deciding  to  which  of  the  five  classes  of  form  a given 
feature  should  belong,  we  may  consider  this  to  be  dependent 
on  three  elements  justly  ; 1st,  the  graver  or  higher  charac- 
ter of  the  destination  of  the  building  ; 2dly,  the  greater  or 
less  importance  of  the  feature  itself ; and  3dly,  its  height 
above  the  ground.  And  by  regarding  each  of  these  elements 
apart  from  the  others,  we  may  deduce  these  three  rules  : 

I.  That  in  buildings  of  different  destinations,  features 
which  are  of  the  same  importance,  and  placed  at  the  same 
heights  relatively  to  the  whole  buildings  to  which  they  be- 
long, should  never  be  found  belonging  to  a graver  class  of 
form  in  the  building  of  the  lighter  destination,  and  vice  versa. 

II.  That  in  the  same  building,  and  at  the  same  height 
above  the  ground,  principal  and  structural  members  should 
never  belong  to  a lighter  class  of  form  than  subordinate 
features,  nor  these  to  a lighter  class  than  ornaments. 


152 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


III.  That  in  the  same  building,  features  of  the  same  degree 
of  importance,  but  situated  at  different  levels,  should  never 
belong  to  a graver  class  of  form  at  the  higher  level  than  at 
the  lower. 

These  rules  will,  I believe,  be  found  to  apply  more  or  less 
extensively  both  to  styles  and  to  individual  buildings,  in 
proportion  as  the  said  styles  or  buildings  are  more  or  less 
generally  admired  by  persons  of  good  taste.  Let  us  examine 
a few  instances. 

In  the  Egyptian  buildings  we  find  forms  of  the  first,  third, 
and  fifth  classes. 

In  the  Doric  Temples  rectangularity  is  strictly  observed 
In  the  plan  and  principal  arrangements,  up  to  the  higher 
part  of  the  structure. 

In  the  Ionic,  the  rectangular  forms  were  discarded  in  some 
minor  matters. 

In  the  Corinthian  Order,  we  have  forms  in  the  second, 
third  and  fifth  kind— the  fifth  kind  reigning  exclusively  in 
all  the  minor  details. 

In  the  Roman  and  Gothic  styles,  the  introduction  of  the 
arch  and  dome  constructions  necessarily  led  to  a more  fre- 
quent circularity  in  the  principal  parts  of  buildings,  both  in 
plan  and  elevation,  and  this  called  for  a far  greater  prepon- 
derance of  curved  forms  in  the  minor  features  and  details, 
than  their  servile  adaptation  of  Grecian  forms  (instead  of 
Grecian  principles)  would  admit. 

It  were  impossible  in  our  brief  space  to  seek  for  the  prin- 
ciples of  architectural  manners  that  intervened  between  the 
fall  of  the  Roman  and  the  rise  of  the  Gothic  systems,  filling 
up  a long  night  of  barbarism  between  the  setting  of  the 
ancient  civilization,  and  the  appearance  of  the  first  dawning 
beams  that  heralded  in  the  modem. 

As  the  lighter  classes  of  form  are  indisputably  the  most 
beautiful  in  themselves,  apart  from  fitness,  there  is  generally, 
when  the  art  is  in  a progressive  state,  far  more  danger  of 
their  encroaching  on  the  domains  of  the  graver  classes*  than 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


153 


there  is  of  the  contrary  evil.  Accordingly,  it  was  in  this 
way  that  the  Greek,  the  Gothic,  and  the  Italian  systems  all 
declined  and  fell  after  their  perfection  had  been  reached,  and 
change  began  to  be  sought  no  longer  for  the  sake  of  improve- 
ment, but  for  the  sake  of  change.  To  these  we  might  add 
the  Moorish  system,  which  seems  to  have  culminated  in  the 
Alhambra,  and  afterwards  to  have  sunk  under  this  same 
abuse — the  fourth  class  of  forms  gradually  superseding  the 
third,  even  in  so  important  a member  as  the  arch.  The 
great  defect  of  this  style,  however,  was  always  want  of 
attention  to  this  correct  placing  of  the  different  classes  of 
forms;  and  at  present,  in  the  poor  remains  of  it  practised  in 
Mahommedan  countries,  the  forms  are  jumbled  together  with 
as  little  regard  to  fitness,  as  in  our  own  sham  architecture. 
If  we  may  judge  from  engravings,  the  arches  are  almost 
exclusively  of  the  reflexed  (or  ogee)  form,  while  mere  details 
on  them  are  often  of  a more  severe  class  (the  second),  and 
the  minutest  lattice-work  often  of  the  first.  The  confusion, 
however,  cannot  be  worse  than  that  to  which  our  own  build- 
ing is  reduced,  in  which  the  gravest  forms  are  often  piled  on 
the  top,  if  indeed  there  be  any  top — architecture  having 
generally  been  driven  from  thence — and  clothing  only  the 
sides  to  a certain  height,  leaving  all  above  to  the  ventilator 
and  chimney-doctor. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  say  a few  words  on  two  qualities  in 
architecture  and  other  arts,  frequently  distinguished  from  the 
beautiful,  though  at  other  times  classed  as  particular  divi- 
sions thereof  : these  are  the  sublime  and  the  picturesque. 

The  inquiry  into  the  sources  of  the  sublime  in  architecture 
must  on  no  account  be  passed  over  by  the  architect,  as  hav- 
ing no  application  to  his  every-day  practice;  for  the  same 
principles  by  which  sublimity  has  been  produced  in  great 
works,  are  the  only  ones  by  which  the  opposite  of  this 
quality  can  be  avoided  in  small  works;  and,  indeed,  this 
opposite  (viz.,  meanness)  is  the  very  worst  fault  a building 
can  have,  and  its  avoidance  is,  if  possible,  more  important  in 


154 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


little  works,  than  is  the  attainment  of  true  sublimity  in  great 
ones;  for  magnitude  and  richness  will,  with  the  many,  always 
suffice  to  cover  the  want  of  the  latter;  while  nothing  can,  in 
small  buildings,  stand  in  the  stead  of  that  for  which  we  have 
no  good  name,  but  which  would,  if  increased  in  scale,  be 
called  sublimity. 

We  conclude  that  the  forms  or  arrangements  of  form  used 
in  the  Doric  order,  are  better  suited  to  produce  sublime 
effects. 

No  Gothic  building  ever  possessed  a particle  of  sublimity, 
unless  at  least  doubling  the  extent,  and  trebling  the  height, 
of  an  ordinary  Doric  temple. 

This  superior  sublimity  of  square-headed  openings  and 
recesses  arises  not  only  from  their  belonging  to  a graver 
class  of  form  than  the  arch,  but  also,  very  often,  from  their 
greater  expression  of  power,  owing  to  our  knowledge,  or 
mechanical  perception,  that  they  must  require  larger  stones 
in  their  construction.  This  somewhat  vulgar  consideration 
has,  I am  convinced,  a great  deal  more  to  do  with  our  appre- 
ciation of  sublimity  in  architecture  than  we  should  be  willing 
to  admit.  Thus,  the  original  Doric  cornice  has  very  little 
projection  compared  with  later  forms  of  that  feature,  yet  it 
produces  as  grand  an  effect  as  many  cornices  that  have  three 
times  its  projection.  This  arises  from  the  absence  of  all 
contrivances  for  supporting  it  by  corbelling, — from  our  per- 
ception that  it  cannot  possibly  be  built  up  of  little  pieces. 
Add  such  contrivances,  ( as  in  the  Corinthian  cornice,  or  still 
more  obviously  in  the  Gothic  machicolations, ) and  you  must 
increase  the  frowning  mass  to  several  times  its  dimensions, 
in  order  to  retain  the  same  bold  and  noble  appearance.  So, 
also,  the  relative  effect  of  square  and  of  arched  coverings 
above  alluded  to,  is  entirely  reversed  in  Gothic  architecture. 
Here,  the  arched  window-head,  when  sufficiently  recessed 
and  overhanging,  has  some  grandeur,  while  the  flat-topped 
Tudor  form  has  not  a particle;  being  propped  up,  and,  as  it 
were,  balanced  on  the  mullions,  whose  apparent  insufficiency 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


155 


for  its  support  only  increases  the  intense  meanness  of  expres- 
sion. 

Next  to  the  prevalence  of  the  graver  classes  of  form,  and 
the  subordination  of  the  others  to  them,  nothing  is  more 
essential  to  nobleness,  than  a principle  analogous  to  what 
painters  term  breadth , i.  e.,  abundance  of  one  thing  in  one 
place.  On  this  subject,  Ruskin  has  insisted  with  his  usual 
eloquence,*  and,  with  great  truth,  says,  “ that  the  relative 
majesty  of  buildings  depends  more  on  the  weight  and  vigor 
of  their  masses  than  on  any  other  attribute  of  their  design; 
mass  of  everything,  of  bulk,  of  light,  of  darkness,  of  color, 
not  mere  sum  of  any  of  these  but  breadth  of  them;  not 
broken  light  nor  scattered  darkness,  nor  divided  weight,  but 
solid  stone,  broad  sunshine,  starless  shade.” 

On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  neither  sublimity  nor 
satisfactory  beauty  in  building,  can  be  expected  of  a flat 
surface  with  holes  in  it,  however  beautiful  their  forms  and 
arrangement.  There  must  be  variety  and  contrast  of  sur- 
faces, and  large  ones  too.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  fine 
architecture  of  only  two  dimensions;  it  must  have  length, 
breadth,  and  depth.  No  building  has  ever  been  admired 
that  has  not  either  colonnades,  or  arcades,  or  very  promi- 
nent buttresses,  or  a very  prominent  cornice,  or  very  deeply 
recessed  openings.  These  are  the  chief  means  that  have 
hitherto  been  employed  to  obviate  flatness  (though  never 
for  that  purpose  alone)  in  permanent  buildings.  In  tempora- 
ry ones  there  have  been  some  other  expedients,  as  the  broad 
eaves  of  Italy  and  Switzerland,  the  overhanging  stories  of 
our  half-timbered  houses,  and  the  verge-boards,  best  deve- 
loped, perhaps,  in  northern  France.  When  iron  shall  be  ad- 
mitted into  architecture,  perhaps  a new  resource  of  this  kind 
may  be  found  in  balconies  or  window-canopies,  or  both:  but, 
as  a general  rule,  all  horizontal  masses  of  shadow  seem  to 
require  a greater  and  general  mass  of  the  same  kind  at  the 
top  of  the  building;  and  this  is  the  most  general  feature  in 


• u The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,”  chap.  m.  “ Power.” 


156 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


all  countries,  and  is  never,  in  any  degree,  a merely  ornsmeo-. 
tal  one,  since  its  use,  to  shelter  the  walls,  will  always  be 
more  effectually  served  the  more  it  projects;  not  an  inch  add- 
ed to  it  can  ever  be  useless. 

Another  mode  of  avoiding  flatness  has,  indeed,  been  often 
practised  in  rural  buildings,  (being  inapplicable  in  towns,) 
and  consists  in  breaking  the  ground  plan  in  a complicated 
manner,  and  carrying  up  some  parts  higher  than  others.  It 
has  a very  specious  appearance  of  effecting  the  object  with- 
out unnecessary  expense ; but  this  is  a great  fallacy,  as  any 
one  may  soon  see,  who  makes  a few  calculations,  that  these 
breaks  and  jetties  add  more  to  the  material  requisite  to  en- 
close and  cover  a given  space,  and,  in  fact,  are  a greater 
sacrifice  to  architectural  beauty,  than  the  largest  features 
ever  added  to  such  buildings,  supposing  them  added  for 
ornament  alone,  which  they  never  ought  to  be.  When 
fashion,  however,  runs  mad  after  some  style  devoid  of  promi- 
nent features,  (as  the  Tudor,)  there  is  no  alternative  but 
this  extravagant  broken-plan  system,  as  the  late  Tudor  revi- 
vers found  to  their  cost. 

Of  that  most  highly  artificial  source  of  pleasure,  called 
the  'picturesque , there  have  been  several  explanations  given, 
all  in  substance  the  same  as  that  of  Ruskin,  who  regards  it 
as  a “ parasitical  sublimity  ,”  or  a display,  in  the  extraneous 
and  adventitious  circumstances  of  a thing,  of  such  qualities, 
as,  transferred  to  the  thing  itself,  would  conduce  to  sublimi- 
ty: thus  the  same  shagginess  which  in  the  lion’s  mane  con- 
duces to  sublimity,  in  the  goat  constitutes  picturesqueness. 
The  same  depth,  and  prevalence  of  contrast,  in  a building, 
which,  when  produced  by  evident  design,  leads  to  nobleness, 
or  at  least  obviates  meanness;  when  resulting  from  chance , 
( either  by  the  falling  of  a building  to  ruin,  or  the  unfore- 
seen clustering  of  several  buildings  together, ) constitutes 
the  picturesque.  The  chance  combinations,  which,  in  natu- 
ral scenery  on  a small  scale,  are  most  picturesque,  are  the 
very  same  which,  if  magnified  to  a mountainous  scale,  would 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


15T 


be  the  most  sublime;  so  that  an  artist  might  often  from 
heaps  of  gravel  or  mortar,  compose  scenes  more  awful  than 
he  could  find  in  a year’s  wandering  among  Alps.  Again, 
the  picturesque  in  painting,  or  what  is  called  “pictorial 
effect,”  consists  in  applying  to  the  adventitious  circumstances 
of  light  and  shade  those  same  principles  and  rules  which  the 
higher  aims  of  the  art  would  require  to  be  observed  with 
regard  to  things  and  actions  themselves;  so  that,  for  in- 
stance, pictorial  effect  requires  one  principal  light,  just  as 
the  higher  excellences  would  require  one  principal  action. 
Whatever  would  be  sublime  or  excellent  in  essentials , the 
same  is  picturesque  in  non-essentials.  “ There  are  thus,” 
says  this  writer,  “ both  in  sculpture  and  painting,  two,  in 
some  sort,  opposite  schools,  of  which  the  one  follows  for  its 
subject  the  essential  forms  of  things,  and  the  other  the  acci- 
dental lights  and  shades  upon  them.  There  are  various  de- 
grees of  their  contrariety:  middle  steps — as  in  the  works  of 
Coreggio,  and  all  degrees  of  nobility  and  of  degradation  in 
their  several  manners ; but  the  one  is  always  recognized  as 
the  pure,  and  the  other  as  the  picturesque  school.”* 

It  would  thus  appear  that  this  quality  has  more  affinity 
with  the  sublime  than  with  the  beautiful,  being  probably  in- 
compatible with  the  latter  in  its  strict  sense,  while  each  of 
these  opposite  qualities  is  compatible  with  the  sublime,  at 
least  with  what  may  be  called  physical  sublimity,  which  is 
the  only  kind  of  wffiicli  we  have  hitherto  spoken. 

Consistently  with  this,  we  might  expect  the  picturesque 
in  building  to  be  most  frequent  where  there  is  most  preva- 
lence of  contrast,  and  the  gravest  or  most  contrasted  species 
of  forms ; and  perhaps  the  best  rule  that  could  be  given  for 
its  production  would  be  the  accumulation  of  all  the  physical 
elements  above  mentioned  as  conducing  to  sublimity,  with  a 
studied  exclusion  of  those  previously  described  as  belonging 
to  beauty,  such  as  uniformity  of  halves,  equidistant  repeti- 
tion, and  the  principle  of  gradation  in  general. 


* “ The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,”  chap.  vi. 

14 


158 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


We  have  already  observed  that  informs,  or  rather  compo- 
sitions of  form,  of  the  first  two  for  rectilinear ) classes,  a dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  those  which  do,  and  those 
which  do  not,  display  this  principle  of  gradation;  which  can 
occur  in  the  first  class  only  in  one  way,  by  a gradated  series 
of  dimensions , while  in  the  second  it  may  be  displayed  in  two 
ways,  either  by  gradation  of  dimensions,  or  of  directions  (i.e., 
of  lines  or  of  angles.^  The  influence  of  gradated  dimensions, 
in  diminishing  grandeur  and  increasing  elegance,  may  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  majority  of  Italian  campaniles  f which 
contain  no  such  gradation ) with  those  of  Pisa,  Cremona,  or 
St.  Bride’s,  London,  [the  only  one  of  Wren’s  designs  in 
which  this  principle  reigns,]  or  with  the  Chinese  towers,  in 
which  it  seems  universally  observed,  and  contributes  not  a 
little  to  their  want  of  grandeur  or  solemnity.  In  the  grand- 
er and  more  sturdy  classes  of  vegetables,  too,  from  the  cotton 
tree  down  to  the  thorn  bush,  this  principle  is  nowhere  to  be 
found ; while  in  those  few  plants  of  the  minor  and  less  dura- 
ble kind,  that  contain  straight  and  angular  forms,  it  is  car- 
ried to  extreme  perfection,  as  in  the  grasses,  ferns,  &c.  It 
seems  as  if  this  elegance  were  given  them  as  a substitute  for 
that  of  curvature,  common  to  other  delicate  vegetable 
forms. 

Now  neither  these  plants,  nor  the  gradated  campaniles, 
would  evmr  be  regarded  in  themselves  as  picturesque  objects, 
while  the  first-mentioned  class  of  each  is  reckoned  among 
the  most  decided  examples  of  this  quality  in  nature  and  in 
art.  The  beauty  of  gradation,  therefore,  while  it  is  only 
prejudicial  to  real  sublimity,  is  destructive  of  this  sort  of 
“ parasitical  sublimity,”  called  the  picturesque.  Divisions, 
when  not  equal,  must  be  varied  without  any  connecting  law, 
as  in  fig.  1 a,  never  as  in  c and  d.  To  show  how  much  a 
prevalence  of  the  lighter  [or  more  gradated]  classes  of  form 
also  militates  against  the  picturesque,  we  may  observe  that 
this  quality  was  perhaps  never  ascribed  taany  natural  object 
whose  forms  are  exclusively  curvilinear;  and  that  it  is  rare 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


159 


in  [even  the  ruins  of]  round-arched  building;  more  frequent 
in  the  pointed;  and  most  of  all  in  those  styles  which  are 
destitute  of  arches.  The  Egyptians  often  clustered  build- 
ings irregularly  to  suit  peculiar  sites;  and  the  temple  thus 
built  on  the  island  of  Philrn  has  been  instanced  as  a very 
complete  case  of  picturesqueness,  and  will  illustrate  the 
rules  given  above. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Imitation  of  Nature  a?id  of  Models — False  Imitation — Constructive 
Truth — Constructive  Unity — Three  Systems  thereof. 

It  is  the  highest  possible  aim  of  architecture,  as  of  all  the 
other  fine  arts,  to  imitate  nature.  This  has  been  generally 
admitted;  but  the  kind  of  nature  to  be  imitated,  and  the 
mode  of  imitation,  seem  to  be  very  variously  understood; 
and  the  notions  of  some  architectural  writers  on  this  point 
are  singularly  different  from  each  other,  and  from  the  plain, 
ordinary  sense  of  the  expression. 

The  difference  between  copying  natural  objects  and  imita- 
ting nature,  lies  in  the  introduction,  in  the  latter  case,  of  a 
principle  of  generalization.  To  draw  the  likeness  of  a par- 
ticular man,  ever  so  exactly,  though  you  excelled  the  da- 
guerreotype, is  not  imitating  nature.  To  discover  and  draw 
all  that  is  common  to  a certain  class  of  men,  omitting  every 
thing  that  is  'peculiar  to  each,  this  is  imitating  nature.  The 
same  principle  must  run  through  every  imitation  of  her,  as 
distinguished  from  an  imitation  of  a natural  object;  and  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  with  this  latter  imitation,  archi- 
tecture has  nothing  to  do.  A man  may  learn  to  paint  or 
carve,  simply  by  imitating  individual  models,  and  may  with 
the  vulgar  pass  for  an  artist:  but  in  architecture,  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  this  copying  of  one  thing  at  a time : the  archi- 
tect [I  mean  the  designer  in  architecture]  must  learn  to  copy 
several  things  at  once , — to  imitate  with  generalization. 


160 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


Here  is  an  example  : We  want  a column,  that  is,  along 
body,  intended  for  transmitting  pressure  to  or  from  a flat 
surface.  It  evidently  matters  not  whether  the  column  be 
pressed  against  the  surface  or  the  surface  against  it,  nor  in 
what  position  it  be  placed.  A strut  is  a column,  only  placed 
horizontally  or  inclined.  The  expression  we  want  to  give  is 
that  of  fitness  to  receive  this  pressure.  Some  nations  have 
copied  columns  from  trees,  and  some  from  men,  but  neither 
of  these  are  imitating  nature  ; on  the  contrary,  they  are  most 
unnatural,  since  nature  has  not  made  either  a tree  or  a man 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  a column.  Are  there,  then,  no 
columns  in  nature  ? Certainly  there  are.  The  limbs  of  all 
animals  are  columns  according  to  the  above  definition,  the 
surface  against  which  they  press  being  the  ground.  The 
human  arm  uplifted  to  support  a weight  is  also  a column  ; 
and  when  pushing  horizontally  against  a wall,  it  is  a 
horizontal  column  or  strut. 

Now,  in  comparing  these  various  natural  columns,  to  dis- 
cover what  they  have  in  common,  we  find 

1st.  That  their  transverse  section  has  roundness,  therefore 
we  make  the  artificial  column  round. 

2d.  We  observe  that  they  vary  in  length  from  four  to  ten 
times  their  greatest  diameter  ; but  that,  in  animals  remark 
able  for  power  and  majesty,  they  do  not  exceed  six  times  the 
said  diameter.  Therefore,  when  this  character  is  aimed  at 
the  columns  are  confined  to  a length  of  between  four  and  six 
diameters. 

3d.  With  regard  to  their  longitudinal  outline  or  profile, 
they  have  a general  diminution  from  their  origin  to  the  ankle 
or  wrist,  i.  e.  to  a point  near  the  surface  against  which  they 
are  applied.  Therefore  we  make  the  artificial  column  diminish 
from  its  origin  (the  ground  or  stylobate)  to  a point  near  the 
surface  to  be  sustained.  This  ‘diminution  is  in  a contrary 
direction  to  that  of  the  legs  of  animals  or  furniture,  because 
they  issue  from  the  object  to  which  they  belong,  and  apply 
themselves  against  a surface  below  ; but  the  legs  of  a fixed 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


.161 


structure  should  issue  from  the  substructure,  and  apply  them- 
selves to  the  support  of  that  above  ; otherwise  they  would 
appear  to  belong  to  the  superstructure  and  form  with  it  one 
mass,  distinct  from  that  below,  and  made  to  be  moved  about 
like  a table.*  The  position,  therefore,  of  the  column,  is  not 
that  of  the  leg,  but  that  of  the  uplifted  arm. 

4th.  Another  circumstance  common 
to  all  the  models,  is  that  the  diminu- 
tion above  noticed,  is  not  regular  or 
straight  lines,  but  tends,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  to  convexity,  i.  e. 
the  diminution,  at  first  slow,  becomes 
more  rapid  towards  the  wrist  or 
ankle ; and  this  is  accordingly 
imitated,  the  convexity  (or  entasis) 
being,  however,  much 
less  than  in  the 
human  example,  be- 
cause in  that  ex- 
ample it  is  peculiarly 
and  the  object  is  not  to 
imitate  this  or  any  other  single 
model,  not  any  particular  limb,  but 
the  general  idea  of  limbs — their 
central  form,  avoiding  all  peculiari- 
ties. If  their  outline  were,  in 
universal  nature,  as  frequently  con- 
cave as  convex,  the  correct  imitation  would  be  to  make  it 
straight  ; but  this  is  not  the  case, — convexity  predominates 
over  concavity,  and  very  slight  convexity  predominates  over 
that  which  is  more  decided. 


* An  eminent  architect  has  attempted  to  explain  this,  by  asserting  as  a rule,  that 
bodies  must  diminish  as  they  recede  from  th ,«  eye , as  a column  upwards,  or  the  leg 
of  a table  downwards.  He  does  not  give  any  reason  or  foundation  in  nature  for  this 
rule  ; but  it  would  be  very  desirable  to  do  so,  as  it  would  overturn  many  long- 
established  prejudices  in  architecture,  and  lead  to  some  curious  novelties,  such  as 
the  downward  diminution  of  balusters,  pedestals,  &c. 


162- 


history  AND  RUDIMENTS 


5th.  We  observe  it  to  be  a part  of  the  nature  of  limbs, 
that,  after  passing  the  smallest  part,  there  is  a rapid  swelling 
to  form  the  extremity  (hand  or  paw ),  wrhich  is  what,  in  the 
column,  we  call  its  capital.  This  protuberance  is,  in  nature, 
commonly  eccentric  with  regard  to  the  axis  of  the  limb,  pro- 
jecting most  on  the  side  towards  which  the  animal  looks, 
and  least  for  often  not  at  allj  on  the  opposite  side.  But 
this  eccentricity  is  least  in  the  most  powerful  animals,  and  is 
properly  omitted  in  the  column  for  two  reasons  ; either  as 
an  exaggeration  of  that  which  distinguishes  the  most  power- 
ful models,  i.  e.  those  most  displaying  a quality  intended  here 
to  be  expressed  ; or  else  it  is  omitted  as  having  an  obvious 
relation  to  a property  not  intended  to  be  expressed,  viz., 
locomotion  : for  the  foot  always  projects  most  on  the  side 
towards  which  it  is  to  move  ; and  as  the  capital  is  not  to 
move,  there  is  no  natural  example  for  its  projecting  on  one 
side  more  than  another. 

6th.  With  regard  to  the  outline  of  the  extremity,  we  find 
it  to  be  at  first  concave  for  a very  short  distance,  then  be- 
coming very  slightly  convex,  and  as  it  spreads,  the  convex- 
ity slowly  increases,  till,  at  the  greatest  protuberance  from 
the  axis,  it  rapidly  curves  round,  and  returns  inward  to  a 
small  distance.  Such  are  the  points  common  to  the  outline 
of  every  animal  extremity,  when  applied  against  a flat  sur- 
face; and  such  are  those  which  constitute  the  profile  of  the 
capital,  in  that  wonderful  specimen  of  generalized  imita- 
tion, the  original  Doric  column;  that  form  on  which  no  sub- 
sequent efforts  have  been  able  to  effect  any  improvement  in 
fitness  of  expression  to  its  particular  purpose;  that  form 
which  when  first  seen,  so  throws  into  the  shade  everything 
else  that  we  have  ever  seen  applied  to  the  same  purpose,  that 
it  seems  too  perfect  for  a human  invention,  and  we  attribute 
it  to  some  power  peculiar  to  the  inventors,  and  now  lost, 
just  as  the  Arabs  attribute  Palmyra  to  the  work  of  genii. 
That  this  pile  of  cut  stones,  which  any  mason  could  exactly 
reproduce,  and  which  resembles  no  natural  form,  should  yet 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


163 


express  its  destination  as  perfectly  as  the  most  finished  statue, 
and  appear  as  incomplete  without  its  entabulature,  as  Atlas 
without  his  globe  ; — that  this  effect  should  be  produced  ahke 
and  instantly  on  every  spectator,  may  well  appear,  to  the  un- 
taught, a sort  of  magic.  But  such  effects  are  never  the  result, 
as  commonly  supposed,  of  a happy  idea,  an  instant  stroke  of 
genius  : they  thus  touch  in  an  instant,  because  they  contain 
the  work  of  years  ; they  spring  from,  and  are  proportional 
to,  the  amount  of  thought  which  the  object  embodies,  and  this 
is  independent  altogether  of  the  amount  of  manual  labor  be- 
stowed. A work  of  elaborate  sculpture,  and  one  of  mere 
masonry,  may  be  exactly  equal  in  this  respect  ; and  when 
either  of  them  strikes  us  with  this  instant  conviction  of  ex- 
cellence, it  is  because  they  contain,  as  it  were,  concentrated 
in  them,  the  thought  perhaps  of  a life,  perhaps  of  many  lives, 
the  observation  and  analysis  and  intense  patient  study  of 
many,  directed  all  in  one  direction,  and  with  a common  ob- 
ject,— the  extraction  and  purification  of  some  general  idea 
in  nature,  as  a metal  is  extracted  by  the  chemist. 

In  the  study  of  nature  ( without  which  the  architect  as  well 
as  every  other  artist  can  do  nothing — absolutely  nothing^)  he 
must  also  study  the  commentaries  on  her,  i.  e.,  all  previous 
productions  of  his  art.  All  these  are  so  many  annotations 
on  Nature’s  great  and  most  difficult  book  ; and  he  who  at- 
tempts to  read  her  without  their  assistance,  simply  sets  up 
his  own  wisdom  against  that  of  all  mankind  ; and  however 
satisfactory  his  discoveries  may  be  to  himself,  he  may  be  as- 
sured that  they  are  as  old  as  Adam  ; and  that,  should  he 
have  at  once  the  greatest  genius  and  the  longest  life  ever 
granted,  he  will  still  have  advanced  no  further  than  the  first 
efforts  of  the  art,  which,  pursued  on  this  principle,  would 
(unlike  all  other  human  pursuits ) be  never  beyond  its  begin- 
ning. 

It  is  impossible  for  the  designer  to  produce  anything  true 
but  by  the  study  of  nature,  and  it  is  impossible  to  produce 
anything  new  but  by  a knowledge  of  what  has  been  done  al- 


164 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ready  by  bis  predecessors.  The  most  original  artists  of  every 
kind  are  always  the  most  extensive  imitators. 

In  architecture  the  number  of  such  is  indeed  infinite : and 
while  one  appears  to  have  seen  no  building  besides  the  Tem- 
ple of  Ilyssus;  another,  nothing  but  the  Erechtheum,  or 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  or  Henry  the  Seventh’s  Chapel,  or  the 
Alhambra;  all  unite  in  condemning  that  architect  in  the 
last  century  who  drew  from  no  source  but  Diocletian’s  pa- 
lace, without  perceiving  that  they  are  committing  the  very 
same  capital  error;  for  the  fundamental  fault  was  not  the 
drawing  from  a corrupt  source,  but  the  drawing  from  only  one 
source. 

The  reader  must  not  suppose  I am  advising  any  thing  so 
utterly  wrong  and  contemptible  as  the  mixture  of  the  peculi- 
arities' of  different  styles.  On  the  contrary,  I am  insisting 
on  the  imitation  of  what  is  common  to  them,  rather  than 
that  of  what  distinguishes  each.  If  you  say  11  there  is  noth- 
ing common  to  them  but  walls  and  a roof,”  you  betray  that 
you  have  not  commenced  the  real  study  of  the  art,  which, 
like  that  of  nature  or  of  science,  can  be  carried  on  only  by 
generalization. 

As  in  all  other  arts,  so  in  architecture,  the  value  and  cor- 
rectness of  imitation,  whether  of  Nature  directly,  or  of  Na- 
ture through  the  medium  of  her  interpreters, — previous 
artists, — depends  entirely  on  the  breadth  of  generalization 
accompanying  it;  and  that  which  simply  imitates  without 
generalizing, — that  which  imitates  only  one  model,  though 
even  a natural  one,  and  ever  so  excellent,  is  not  art  at  all. 

Connected  with  the  error  that  imitative  art  consists  in  the 
imitation  of  what  is  commonly  called  nature,  i.  e.,  of  particu- 
lar or  individual  nature,  is  also  the  most  destructive  notion 
that  its  perfection  is  to  “ deceive  the  eye,”  which  is,  in  fact, 
the  basest  purpose  to  which  any  art,  or  rather  any  skill  and 
science  originally  amassed  for  the  purposes  of  art,  can  be 
prostituted  : for  it  must  be  observed,  that  no  manual  dexteri- 
ty can  be  called  art;  it  is  only  the  material  collected  for  its 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


165 


use,  or  the  language  in  which  it  speaks.  Now,  when  this  is 
used  in  order  to  deceive  in  any  way,  it  is  as  if  a man,  who 
had  learned  writing  in  order  to  write  sermons,  should  employ 
his  skill  in  commiting  forgery. 

“ For  want  of  this  distinction,”  says  Sir  Joshua,  {i.  e., 
the  distinction  between  the  art  and  the  mechanical  skill,) 
“ the  world  is  filled  with  false  criticism.  Raffaelle  is  praised 
for  naturalness  and  deception,  which  he  certainly  has  not  ac- 
complished, and  as  certainly  never  intended.”  It  is  the  same 
error  which  leads  the  vulgar  to  think  it  a beauty  when  the 
figures  of  a picture  stand  out  “as  if  you  could  walk  round 
them,”  or  when  painted  decorations,  or  papering,  or  carpets, 
are  shaded  to  appear  [in  a particular  light]  as  if  carved  ; or 
when  a building,  or  a front  of  a building,  or  any  of  the 
smallest  part  or  member  thereof,  appears  like  any  thing 
which  it  is  not ; — a new  building  like  an  old  one  built  in  a 
different  age;  several  little  houses  like  one  palace;  or  one 
property  like  several ; an  essential  part  like  an  ornament,  or 
an  ornament  like  an  essential  part;  a buttress  like  a column, 
an  attic  like  a pediment,  an  arch  like  a lintel ; — to  say  noth- 
ing of  such  gross  frauds  as  making  stucco  look  like  stone,  or 
paint  like  wood. 

The  object  of  all  real  art,  as  of  all  science,  is  to  elicit 
truth  ; but  any  one  who,  fresh  from  nature,  or  from  the 
works  of  other  ages  or  nations,  should  arrive  among  the 
works  of  modern  English  architecture,  would  suppose  its 
whole  aim,  and  that  of  every  detail  in  it,  to  be  deception. 
One.  enters  a building,  perhaps  a place  of  worship,  that  is 
praised  for  unpretending  plainness,  and  the  eye  seeks  in  vain 
for  a single  object  on  which  it  can  rest  as  something  real, — 
for  a single  feature  that  is  what  it  appears  to  be.  The  plas- 
tered walls  pretend  to  be  built  of  huge  granite  or  marble 
blocks  ; the  flimsy  surface  that  conceals  the  roof,  to  be  com- 
posed of  lacunarise,  or  stone  coffer-work,  on  a more  colossal 
scale  than  any  Egyptian  ever  dreamt  of.  A stove  must  re- 
present an  useless  pedestal,  or,  perhaps,  the  model  of  a build- 


166 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ing  ; and  the  deal  fittings,  not  content  with  one  deception, 
must  with  singular  ingenuity  contrive  to  perpetrate  two  at 
once, — to  appear  in  substance  like  oak,  and  in  form  like  the 
marble  walls  and  antas  of  a Greek  temple.  Such  is  an  un- 
pretending building.  The  evil  so  infests  everything  that  meets 
us  on  whatever  side  we  turn,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  real- 
ize the  fact,  till  we  turn  to  the  works  of  other  ages  or  distant 
nations,  that  all  this  is  unnecessary , that  there  may  be,  and 
over  most  of  the  world  is,  and  every  where  has  been,  architec- 
ture without  deception, — not  without  this  or  that  kind  of  it, 
but  absolutely  without  any.  Such  is  the  atmosphere  of  it  in 
which  we  are  plunged,  that  we  can  hardly  fancy  such  a thing 
as  its  absence  ; and  we  actually,  on  mentioning  it,  are  met 
by  such  questions  from  intelligent  and  otherwise  well-inform- 
ed persons,  as  “ What  is  the  use  of  paint,  if  not  to  imitate 
other  things  ?”  Grown-up  men  actually  require  to  be  told 
that  paint  is  a durable  and  smooth  coating  for  perishable  or 
rough  surfaces,  either  to  preserve  them,  or  by  its  smoothness 
repel  dirt,  or  to  replace  their  natural  color  by  one  more 
pleasing  or  fitter  for  their  situation  ; or  lastly,  to  adorn  their 
surface  by  varied  color  or  beautiful  forms.  These  are  the 
uses  of  paint,  and  they  give  vast  scopes  for  design  and  taste, 
but  have  no  more  to  do  with  imitation  or  deception  than  the 
skin  of  an  animal  or  plant  has.  Does  the  skin  or  bark  imi- 
tate flesh  or  wood  ? What  possible  reason  then  can  there 
be  for  stucco  or  paint  to  represent  anything  but  stucco  or 
paint  ? They  never  represent  anything  else  in  the  works  of 
the  Greeks,  Romans,  Gothicists,  or  Arabs  ; and  when  we 
want  more  ornament  than  is  found  in  their  works,  it  will  be 
time  enough  to  look  for  a method  not  practised  by  them. 

Ruskin,  who,  though  falling  into  my  dangerous  fallacies, 
has  truly  treated  on  this  subject,  says — “ It  is  very  necessary 
in  the  outset  to  mark  clearly  wherein  consists  the  essence  of 
fallacy  as  distinguished  from  supposition  : for  it  might  be  at 
first  thought  that  the  whole  kingdom  of  imagination  was  one 
of  deception  also.  N ot  so  : the  action  of  imagination  is  a 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


167 


voluntary  summoning  of  the  conceptions  of  things  absent  or 
impossible  ; and  the  pleasure  and  nobility  of  the  imagination 
partly  consists  in  its  knowledge  and  contemplation  of  them 
as  such,  i,  e.,  in  the  knowledge  of  their  actual  absence  or  im- 
possibility at  the  moment  of  their  apparent  presence  or  reali- 
ty. When  the  imagination  deceives,  it  becomes  madness. 
It  is  a noble  faculty  so  long  as  it  confesses  its  own  ideality  ; 
when  it  ceases  to  confess  this,  it  is  insanity.  All  the  differ- 
ence lies  in  the  fact  of  the  confession,  in  there  being  no  de- 
ception It  is  necessary  to  our  rank  as  spiritual  creatures 
that  we  should  be  able  to  invent  and  to  behold  what  is  not  ; 
and  to  our  rank  as  moral  creatures,  that  we  should  know  and  * 
confess  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  not. 

“ Again,  it  might  be  thought,  and  has  been  thought,  that 
the  whole  art  of  painting  is  nothing  else  than  an  endeavor  to 
deceive.  Not  so:  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a statement  of  cer- 
tain facts  in  the  clearest  possible  way.  I desire  to  give  an 
account  of  a mountain  or  of  a rock:  I begin  by  telling  its 
shape;  but  words  will  not  do  this  distinctly,  and  I draw  its 
shape,  and  say,  “ This  was  its  shape.”  Next,  I would  fain 
represent  its  color:  but  words  will  not  do  this  either,  and  I 
dye  the  paper,  and  say,  “ This  was  its  color.”  Such  a pro- 
cess may  be  carried  on  until  the  scene  appears  to  exist,  and 
a high  pleasure  may  be  taken  in  its  apparent  existence. 
This  is  a communicated  act  of  imagination,  but  no  lie:  the 
lie  can  consist  only  in  an  assertion  of  its  existence,  [which  is 
never  for  one  instant  made,  implied,  or  believed,]  or  else  in 
false  statements  of  forms  or  colors  [which  are  indeed  made 
and  believed  to  our  great  loss  continually.]  And  observe 
also,  that  so  degrading  a thing  is  deception,  in  even  the  ap- 
proach and  appearance  of  it,  that  all  painting  which  even 
reaches  the  mark  of  apparent  realization,  is  degraded  in  so 
doing.  ******** 

“ The  violations  of  truth  which  dishonor  poetry  and  paint- 
ing are  thus,  for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  treatment  of 
their  subjects  : but  in  architecture,  another  and  a less  subtle, 


168 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


more  contemptible  violation  of  truth,  is  possible  ; a direct 
falsity  of  assertion  respecting  the  nature  of  material,  &c.  ; 
* * and  this  is,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  wrong  ; 

it  is  as  truly  deserving  of  reprobation  as  any  other  moral 
delinquency ; it  is  unworthy  alike  of  architects  and  of 
nations  ; and  it  has  been  a sign,  wherever  it  has  widely  and 
with  toleration  existed,  of  a singular  debasement  of  the  arts  : 
that  it  is  not  a sign  of  worse  than  this,  of  a general  want  of 
severe  probity,  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  our  knowledge 
of  the  strange  separation  which  has  for  some  centuries 
existed  between  the  arts  and  all  other  subjects  of  human 
" intellect,  as  matters  of  conscience.  This  withdrawal  of 
conscientiousness  from  among  the  faculties  concerned  with 
art,  while  it  has  destroyed  the  arts  themselves , has  also  rendered 
nugatory  the  evidence  which  otherwise  they  might  have 
presented  respecting  the  character  of  the  respective  nations 
among  whom  they  have  been  cultivated  ; otherwise  it  might 
appear  strange  that  a nation  so  distinguished  for  its  general 
uprightness  and  faith  as  the  English,  should  admit  in  their 
architecture  more  of  pretence,  concealment,  and  deceit,  than 
any  other  of  this  or  past  time.” — “ Seven  Lamps  of  Archi- 
tecture f II.  “ TrutliP 

It  will  be  asked,  perhaps,  “ Must  we  not  turn  the  best  side, 
outwards,  then  ?”  Certainly,  this  is  an  important  part  of  the 
courtesy  of  building.  It  is  a mark  of  respect  due  to  all  who 
see  your  work,  to  turn  them  its  best  side  ; but  it  is  still  more 
important  to  do  so  honestly, — to  proclaim  at  the  same  time 
“ This  is  my  best  side.”  Herein  consists  the  whole  difference 
between  the  incrustations  of  mean  materials  with  richer  ones, 
practised  in  times  and  places  of  good  taste,  and  in  those  of 
bad.  The  covering  of  a poor  or  unsightly  material  with  a 
better,  does  not  necessarily  lead  to  deception,  or  any  thing 
of  the  sort.  Many  churches  in  Italy  are  said  to  be  veneered 
with  marble  ; that  is,  thin  slabs  of  marble  are  let  in  and 
confined  by  surrounding  bands  of  stone,  as  the  metopes  of  a 
Doric  temple  by  the  triglyphs,  or  as  panels  are  confined  in 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


169 


joinery.  There  is  no  deception,  the  whole  shows  plainly 
what  it  is, — a sound  piece  of  construction  held  together  not 
by  cement,  but  by  obvious  mechanical  arrangement ; and  the 
marble  slabs  pretend  to  be  nothing  more  than  slabs,-— 
beautiful  natural  objects  placed  there  for  ornament  or  clean- 
liness, and  not  for  deception. 

When  an  external  film  is  of  a totally  different  nature  from 
the  substance  beneath,  the  form  will  often  inform  us  that  this 
external  substance  cannot  be  that  of  which  the  whole  is  com- 
posed, and  thus  there  will  be  no  deception.  This  is  the  reason 
that  gilding  is  no  deception  when  not  applied  to  metals.  We 
can  no  more  mistake  a gilded  stone  or  plaster  ornament  for 
one  of  gold,  than  a stone-colored  metallic  object  for  one  of 
stone,  because  the  peculiar  mechanical  properties  of  a 
malleable  metal  would  prevent  its  ever  being  made  into  the 
same  form  as  stone  or  plaster  (unless  for  deception).  Metals, 
woods,  and  brittle  materials  are  known  from  each  other, 
independently  of  color,  by  the  three  characters  of  form  to 
which  their  respective  properties  lead.  Hence  gilding  can 
never  deceive  except  upon  metals ; and  upon  these  we  shall 
accordingly  never  find  it  applied  in  times  of  good  taste, — at 
least,  never  as  a total  covering. 

In  colored  deeoration  on  flat  surfaces,  all  shadowing  ( i . e., 
representation  of  the  effect  of  solidity  and  relief)  is  a direct 
falsehood,  whether  it  deceive  or  not.  But  observe  the  differ- 
ence between  decoration  and  picture.  A picture  (whether 
with  or  without  background ) is  one  thing , an  independent 
whole,  distinct  from  all  surrounding  things,  and  therefore 
requiring  to  be  separated  from  them  by  a frame  or  border 
( either  painted  or  in  relief ) ; but  whatever  has  no  frame  is  no 
picture ; it  is  decoration , and  comes  under  a different  principle 
of  design  altogether,  being  not  a whole  but  a part.  Now, 
decoration  is  of  two  kinds,  consisting  either  of  forms  in  re- 
lief, or  of  colors  on  the  flat  ; but  the  latter  is  given  up,  and 
loses  its  separate  existence  if  it  attempt  to  ape  the  former  ; 
we  have  no  longer  two  kinds  of  decoration,  but  only  one, 

15 


110 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


viz.  carving  and  sham-carving.  But  you  say,  the  flowers  are 
ugly  without  shading,  and  that  if  they  are  imitated  at  all, 
why  may  not  their  shades  be  imitated  ? Here  we  come  to 
the  root  of  the  whole  fallacy.  You  hum  no  business  with 
imitated  flowers,  in  the  vulgar  acceptation  of  imitated,  i.  e., 
copied  ones.  Their  place  is  in  picture,  not  decoration.  No 
natural  flower  is  fit  or  beautiful  in  decoration  ; if  it  were,  it 
would  not  be  fit  or  beautiful  in  nature.  The  notion,  at 
present  very  common,  that  natural  (i.  e.,  particular^)  flowers 
should  be  imitated  in  decoration,  is  most  false  and  unnatural. 
No  one  thing  in  nature  is  natural  enough  for  decorative  use. 
This  art,  like  architecture,  must  generalize, — must  copy  not 
a natural  form,  but  a natural  idea.  Its  flowers  are  as  false, 
when  copied  from  single  natural  models,  as  columns  would  be 
if  copied  from  a single  natural  limb.  In  the  whole  of  the 
works  of  those  who  used  the  most  ornament,  and  ( by  universal 
consent ) the  best,  viz.,  the  Greeks,  Homans,  Gothicists,  and 
Arabs,  we  may  challenge  the  production  of  one  example 
( except  in  times  of  acknowledged  debasement ) of  what  are 
called  natural  flowers,  that  is,  sham  flowers. 

If  you  say  shadowings  produce  boldness  and  (if  properly 
treated ) breadth  of  effect,  so  do  masses  of  dark  colors,  with- 
out deception,  equally  well  ; for  proof  of  which,  you  are  re- 
ferred to  all  the  designs  of  the  above  schools,  without  ex- 
ception. Decorative  designers  seem  to  produce  few  forms 
not  drawn  from  those  exhaustless  sources  : it  is  to  be  wished 
they  would  copy  some  of  their  principles. 

Much  stir  has  been  made,  of  late,  about  our  inferiority,  in 
all  matter  of  taste,  to  neighboring  nations,  who,  however,  are 
rapidly  descending  to  our  level  ; but  this  stir  is  utterly  vain 
among  a people  with  whom  art  means  deceit.  Until  we  can 
be  taught  that  nothing  is  beautiful  which  is  not  true,  we 
shall  find  taste  a jewel  beyond  the  reach  of  all  the  nation’s 
wealth  to  buy,  and  of  all  her  power  to  win. 

Sometimes  the  truth  of  particular  numbers  must  be 
sacrificed  to  that  of  the  whole,  as  in  Gothic  architecture  of 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


m 


the  purest  kind  ; in  which  the  smallest  coverings  or  heads  to 
openings,,  though  not  constructed  on  the  arch  principle,  are 
nevertheless  made  to  resemble  arches,  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  chief  general  truth  of  that  style,  which  is  arcuaticn,  or  the 
exclusive  use  of  this  mode  of  covering  openings  and  spaces. 

Constructive  Truth  and  Constructive  Unity  are  the  two 
most  important  principles  to  be  borne  in  mind,  in  tracing  the 
history  of  architecture,  and  are  indispensable  in  any  attempt 
to  rival,  or  even  understand,  the  productions  of  the  two 
standard  or  perfected  systems  which  the  world  has  hitherto 
seen, — the  Greek,  and  that  commonly  called  the  Gothic. 

Constructive  Truth  requires  that  a building  shall  never 
appear  to  be  constructed  on  different  statical  principles  from 
those  really  employed  in  its  construction.  The  whole  of  modern 
Gothic  architecture  is  a constructive  falsehood,  because  it  will 
presently  be  shown  that  all  the  peculiarities  of  this  style 
grew  from  the  practice  of  constructing,  within  buildings,  a 
vaulted  ceiling  of  stone,  and  were  solely  adapted  to  a build- 
ing with  such  a ceiling.  Consequently,  when  applied  to  a 
building  not  so  ceiled,  the  style  must  either  be  made  useless 
and  meaningless,  by  copying  only  its  forms  without  a motive; 
or  else,  if  correctly  copied  (i.  e.,  preserving  the  apparent 
motive,  either  externally  or  internally,  or  both  ),  it  must  then 
appear  ( either  externally  or  internally,  or  bothj  to  have 
a vaulted  ceiling,  which  it  has  not  ; and,  in  either  case,  the 
whole  must  be  a lie  from  the  foundation  to  the  finials. 

Constructive  Unity  is  a principle  no  less  important  than 
any  other  unity,  and  bears  an  especial  analogy  to  unity  of 
stye,  being  in  fact  the  same  thing  in  construction  as  the  lat- 
ter in  decoration.  I assume  that  no  one  disputes  the  neces- 
sity of  an  uniform  style  of  ornament  throughout  the  same 
building.  Now,  construction  is  a more  important  thing  than 
ornament,  and  has  more  relation  to  the  higher  excellences 
of  the  art.  Architectural  beauty  is  not  mere  beauty  of 
form,  mere  eumorphy;  if  it  were  so,  a beautiful  form  would 
be  beautiful  wherever  exhibited,  in  a pepper-box  or  a tower, 


m 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


a baluster  or  a column.  In  all  the  more  important  features 
[indeed  all  but  the  merest  ornaments,]  the  beauty  of  abstract 
form  is  to  be  sacrificed  to  that  of  statical  fitness ; but  in  or- 
der that  this  may  be  seen  or  appreciated,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  various  pressures  be  perceived,  or  a part  of  them,  to 
which  part  the  members  may  be  seen  to  be  fitted.  Conse- 
quently, if  it  be  necessary  that  the  treatment  of  geometrical 
forms  be  consistent  throughout,  it  is  far  more  necessary  that 
the  treatment  of  these  pressure,  or  of  the  displayed  portions 
of  them,  be  consistent  throughout. 

Now,  there  are  three  distinct  modes  of  treating  the  pres- 
sures of  a building  ; or,  in  other  words,  three  styles  of  con- 
struction. They  are  all  mixed  indiscriminately  in  every  mod- 
ern building ; but  it  is  the  peculiar  merit  of  the  two  hitherto 
perfected  architectural  systems,  the  Greek  and  the  Gothic, 
that  in  the  pure  examples  of  each,  only  one  of  these  modes 
of  construction  was  seen.  This  is  what  distinguishes  those 
two  styles  from  all  others,  and  the  pure  period  of  each  from 
preceding  and  following  periods, — constructive  unity. 

Perhaps  I should  rather  call  it  unity  of  statical  design  ; for 
the  actual  construction  has  never,  except  in  Egypt,  been  ab- 
solutely pure  throughout  : but  a portion  of  the  construction 
is  unavoidably  hidden  in  every  artificial  structure,  as  it  is 
even  in  every  natural  one. 

The  three  styles  of  statical  design  were  well  pointed  out 
in  the  very  useful  work  of  the  late  A.  Bartholomew.*  They 
depend  on  the  three  modes  of  applying  force  to  solids,  by 
cross-strain , by  compression,  by  tension.  These  are,  of  course, 
familiar  to  the  reader  who  has  looked  into  the  rudiments  of 
constructive  science,  to  be  found  in  several  of  the  volumes 
of  this  series. 

The  first  and  simplest  mode  of  construction,  that  employ- 
ed by  all  barbarous  and  infant  nations,  is  the  only  one  which 
subjects  materials  to  cross-strain,  the  most  wasteful  mode  of 
employing  thek*  strength.  The  method,  however,  may  per- 


* “ Specifi cations  for  Practical  Architecture,”  &c. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


173 


haps  be  described  in  the  most  general  terms  as  that  of  verti- 
cal pressure , because  all  the  pressures  throughout  the  build- 
ing are  wholly  in  their  natural  direction,  vertically  down- 
wards; and  for  this  purpose  all  the  continuous  joints,  or 
beds,  throughout  the  structure  are  made  horizontal , and  all 
the  interrupted  joints  vertical.  All  openings  are  covered 
without  any  deviation  from  this  rule,  by  laying  a beam,  lin- 
tel, or  architrave  across  from  pillar  to  pillar,  resting  on  the 
flat  tops  of  both;  and  all  ceilings,  whether  in  stone  or  wood, 
are  formed  by  an  extension  of  the  same  method:  the  roof 
framing,  being  concealed  both  from  the  exterior  and  interior, 
forms  no  part  of  the  design,  and  by  the  Greeks  it  was  prob- 
ably constructed  on  the  third  method — that  of  tension. 

During  the  prevalence  of  this  first  constructive  style  in 
its  purity,  every  ohlique  pressure  was  excluded,  as  contrary  to 
the  principles  of  sound  architecture.  The  introduction  into 
architecture,  however,  by  the  Etruscans  and  Romans,  of  the 
new  constructions  called  the  dome , arch , and  vault,  all  de- 
pending on  oblique  pressure,  gradually  destroyed  the  consis- 
tency of  this  first  architectural  system,  the  forms  of  which, 
owing  to  the  intrinsic  beauty  imparted  to  them  by  the  Greek 
genius,  were  not  readily  abandoned,  but  continued  to  linger 
on,  though  more  and  more  debased  in  geometric  beauty,  and 
forming  harsher  and  harsher  incongruities  with  the  new  con- 
structions, till,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  the 
great  extent  of  church  building,  and  the  desire  to  render 
these  structures  fire-proof,  led  to  the  extension  of  the  arch 
principle  to  the  covering  of  all  openings,  and  the  ceiling  of 
all  areas,  and  from  that  moment  architecture  took  a new 
turn.  Erom  the  invention  of  the  arch  till  the  rejection  of  the 
learn  (a  period  of  about  fifteen  centuries,)  every  change  had 
been  for  the  worse;  the  whole  history  of  the  art  was  debase- 
ment, from  the  progressive  loss  of  constructive  consistency. 
The  beam  was  rejected , (at  least  in  north-western  Europe,) 
and  immediately  all  was  purification  and  rapid  return  to 
unity. 


174 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


The  forms  derived  from  Greece,  but  by  this  time  so  de- 
crepit as  to  retain  little  vestige  of  their  original  beauty,  were 
now  gradually  abandoned,  and  everything  old  (except  first 
principles)  sacrificed  to  the  new  idea;  and  so  rapid  was  the 
progress,  that  by  the  year  1250  in  Germany,  and  by  1300 
in  England,  the  unity  of  the  new  system  was  established  : 
and  now  let  us  see  in  what  consisted  this  unity. 

The  second  system  of  t tatical  design  consisted  in  the  com- 
plete avoidance  of  cross - train , and  in  the  subjecting  of  the 
materials  throughout  the  whole  of  the  visible  construction  to 
forces  of  compression  alone.  It  may  therefore  perhaps  be  best 
termed  the  Compressile  System.  In  order  to  effect  this,  the 
pressures  can  no  longer  be  every  where  vertical ; and  as  it  is 
a most  important  point  in  construction  that  the  continuous 
joints,  or  beds,  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular 
to  the  pressures  acting  on  them,  these  joints  are  no  longer 
universally  horizontal,  but  inclined  in  various  directions,  and 
should  have  been  so  to  a greater  extent  than  the  Gothicists 
practised.  Indeed,  there  would  be  much  room  for  the  im- 
provement of  that  system  by  the  introduction  both  of  mod- 
ern science  and  of  a larger  portion  of  Greek  taste  (of  which 
it  nevertheless  retained  a good  deal  in  its  best  productions.)* 
But  imperfectly  as  the  Gothic  aim  was  carried  out  in  con- 
struction, and  often  also  in  decoration,  it  was  completely  ac- 
complished in  statical  design,  i.  e.,  throughout  the  visible  con- 
struction there  was  no  portion  of  matter  subjected,  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  judge,  to  any  other  force  than  simple  compres- 
sion. When  this  is  the  case  [and  not  otherwise]  a building 
may  be  termed  completely  Gothic;  being  complete  in  its 
statical  design.  The  geometrical  design  is  another  point, 
quite  independent  of  this,  and  is  reducible  mainly  to  the  cor- 
rect positing  and  subordination  of  the  five  classes  of  forms 
mentioned  in  our  last  chapter;  a principle  equally  necessary  in 
every  style.  A building  may  be  perfect  in  its  statical  design, 


* Of  coarse  I do  not  mean  Greek  forms,  the  emancipation  from  which,  had  been 
an  essential  part  of  the  formation  of  the  new  system. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


175 


while  it  is  extremely  faulty  in  the  geometrical,  as  was  the 
case  with  nearly  all  the  buildings  of  Egypt. 

The  Gothicists,  like  the  Greeks,  employed  a tensile  con- 
struction in  the  roof  framing,  that  being  in  both  systems  in- 
visible either  from  the  exterior  or  interior.  Nor  was  this 
concealment  any  defect;  for,  as  Ruskin  has  observed,  “the 
architect  is  not  bound  to  exhibit  construction:”  still  less  can 
he  be  bound  to  exhibit  the  whole  of  it,  to  do  what  nature  has 
never  done.  lie  may  conceal  as  much  as  he  likes,  but  may 
not  disguise  any.  None  need  appear,  but  that  which  does 
appear  must  be  true. 

After  its  culmination,  the  Gothic  system  gradually  de- 
clined, from  the  progress  of  a variety  of  falsehoods,  of  which 
some  were  general  to  the  whole  of  the>Aonntries  in  which  it 
flourished;  others  confined  to  France  or  Germany,  or  Eng- 
land, or  the  Netherlands.  It  is  not  the  place  to  enumerate 
them  here,  but  to  observe  that  one  of  the  chief  causes,  espe- 
cially in  England,  was  the  superseding  of  stone  by  timber  in 
many  parts,  particularly  ceilings,  and  the  consequent  exten- 
sion of  the  style  of  construction  best  adapted  to  this  mate- 
rial, which  is  the  third  style  already  twice  alluded  to,  viz., 
the  tensile. 

In  the  compressile  system,  all  apertures  and  spaces  were 
covered  on  the  arch  principle,  and  the  oblique  pressures  thus 
occasioned  were  transmitted  down  to  the  ground  by  masses 
of  material  called  buttresses  or  abutments.  But  this  is  not  the 
most  economical  mode  of  treating  the  said  pressures  when 
we  have  materials  of  great  length  and  strong  in  tension,  as 
timber  and  iron.  The  more  obvious  and  less  wasteful  mode 
is  tying  the  two  feet  of  the  arch  together  by  a bar  of  one  of 
these  materials,  thereby  counteracting  the  horizontal  portion 
of  the  oblique  pressures,  and  leaving  only  their  vertical  por- 
tion to  press  on  the  two  supports,  as  the  original  beam  or 
lintel  of  the  first  style  did,  and  render  all  buttressing  from 
without  unnecessary.  Instead  of  the  arch,  an  arrangement 
of  two  or  more  bars  or  timbers  may  be  substituted,  and  thus 


116 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


arise  the  various  kinds  of  truss , whose  perfection  consists  in 
having  no  part  subjected  to  cross-strain,  but  every  part  either 
to  direct  compression  or  direct  tension. 

This  third  constructive  system  combines,  in  a certain  de- 
gree, the  advantages,  and  avoids  the  defects,  of  both  the 
others : for  all  its  active  pressures  are  vertical,  as  in  the  Jirst 
style*  and  yet  it  avoids  all  cross-strain,  like  the  second.  It 
saves  all  the  waste  of  material  [not  conducive  to  strength] 
in  the  lintels  of  the  former  style,  and,  also,  all  the  material 
of  the  buttresses  in  the  latter. 

But,  though  there  are  three  styles  of  construction,  there 
have  been  only  two  systems  of  architecture, — only  two  styles 
possessing  constructive  unity — the  Greek  and  the  Gothic.  The 
third  constructive  principle  has  yet  to  be  elaborated  into  a 
system.  The  two  systems  are  past  and  dead ; we  may  admire 
the  fading  vestiges  of  their  loveliness,  but  can  never  revive 
them.  The  third  is  the  destined  architecture  of  the  future. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principles  to  Trabeated  or  Beamed 
Building  by  the  Grecian  Architects . 

Though  the  first  style  of  construction  was  the  most  un- 
scientific and  wasteful,  both  of  material  and  of  space,  yet  did 
it  produce  the  most  durable  buildings,  and  also  the  most 
grand  and  noble  artistic  effects.  The  durability  arose  partly 
from  the  great  masses  employed,  because  it  required  long 
and  strong  lintels  to  span  the  openings,  and  allow  those 
openings  to  be  as  wide  as  possible;  and  thus  a correspondent 
size  and  massiveness  of  stones  was  needed  throughout.  It 
also  arose  from  the  absence  of  oblique  pressures,  whereby 
every  stone  became  independent  of  those  above  or  beside  it 
for  support,  so  that  no  dilapidation  of  the  upper  parts  could 
[as  in  arched  buildings]  endanger  any  thing  beneath.  To 
these  reasons  may  be  added  the  exact  perpendicularity  of 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


177 


every  pressure  to  the  bed  [or  horizontal  joint]  receiving  it, — - 
an  excellence  that  can  never  be  perfectly  attained  in  the  in- 
clined beds  of  arched  buildings,  however  exact  may  be  the 
calculations  of  the  engineer ; and,  indeed,  is  never  attempt- 
ed. Lastly,  the  ambitious  nations  who  best  practised  this 
mode  of  building,  gave  it  a great  excess  of  solidity,  calcula- 
ted to  withstand  even  earthquakes,  and  not  without  success. 

The  unrivalled  grandeur  and  majesty  attainable  by  the 
same  style  of  construction,  when  properly  treated,  arose 
partly  from  this  same  excess  of  solidity;  partly  from  the 
bold  projections  rendered  possible  by  the  largeness  of  the 
stones;  partly  from  the  sublime  repose  of  a structure  whose 
pressures  are  all  vertical , no  side-thrusting,  no  action;  but 
chiefly  from  the  redangularity  of  the  openings  or  principal 
divisions,  rendering  possible  the  most  perfect  subordination 
of  the  other  classes  of  form,  or  the  omission  ( or  reduction  to 
any  extent ) of  the  lighter  classes,  and  the  use  of  the  grave 
classes  in  minor  details. 

In  the  practice  of  this  system  by  the  Egyptains,  there  was 
perfect  constructive  unity,  not  only  in  the  visible , but  in  the 
whole  construction ; all  of  which  indeed  was  seen,  for  (the 
almost  rainless  climate  rendering  pent-roofs  unnecessary ) the 
only  covering  was  a flat  stone  ceiling.  But  this  absence  of 
hidden  construction  was  no  merit  ("being,  in  fact,  unnatural], 
and  whatever  other  merits  the  Egyptian  works  had  were 
counteracted  by  two  grievous  faults, — inattention  to  the  sub - 
ordination  of  the  five  classes  of  forms , and  complexity,  or 
utter  absence,  of  unity  in  the  general  design , even  of  temples, 
the  fabrics,  of  all  others,  requiring  the  most  of  that  unity. 

The  unity  of  statical  design,  then,  in  the  Greek  structures, 
was  nothing  new  or  peculiar  to  them.  Their  excellence  con- 
sisted in  the  addition  to  this  of  the  two  principles  above 
mentioned;  and  of  these  we  will  consider,  first,  theu  unity  of 
general  design. 

The  feeling  which  led  to  the  use  of  the  gravest  class  of 
form,  in  all  principal  arrangements,  having  decided  the  gene- 


ns 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ral  plan  to  be  rectangular,  it  might  at  first  be  thought  that 
a square  would  embody  the  most  perfect  idea  of  unity ; and 
there  are  not  wanting  examples  of  this  plan  in  the  nave  of 
temples  without  peristyles,  as  in  the  great  temple  of  Ceres, 
at  Eleusis,  and  the  very  small  Ionic  one  existing  in  StuarPs 
time,  on  the  Ilyssus,  the  cell  of  which  was  a perfect  cube.* 
But  when  that  beautiful  and  sublime  change  was  made,  of 
carrying  the  colonnade  entirely  round,  making  all  the  sides 
alike  in  character,  all  equally  ornate,  all  equally  impossible 
to  appear  flat  and  blockish,  even  at  the  distance  of  miles, — 
then  the  squareness  of  general  plan  was  invariably  given  up 
for  an  oblong  at  least  twice  as  long  as  its  breadth,  generally 
somewhat  more.  What  was  the  reason  for  this  ? A square 
peripteral  building  would  have  led  to  a doubt,  on  approach- 
ing it,  which  of  the  two  visible  sides  was  the  entrance  front. 
Unless  both  were  alike,  the  fourfold  symmetry  would  be 
sacrificed;  but  if  both  were  alike,  both  must  be  entrances,  oi 
appear  to  be  so  (as  in  the  graceful  work  of  Palladio,  above 
mentioned ).  Now  the  appearance  of  only  one  entrance,  and 
the  instant  discovery  thereof,  was  evidently  a most  important 
part  in  that  unmatched  expression  of  unity  at  which  the 
Greeks  aimed,  and  alone,  of  all  the  nations  in  the  world, 
attained.  Though  there  were  often  two  entrances,  being 
placed  at  each  end,  only  one  was  visible  in  any  possible  view 
of  the  building.  But  this  was  not  enough  ; the  distinct 
statement  that  there  was  no  entrance  in  the  side,  required 
that  (when  it  had  a colonnade)  there  should  be  a column  in 
its  centre,  consequently  an  odd  number  of  them  ; while  the 
entrance  front  required  an  opening  in  the  centre,  and  there- 
fore an  even  number  of  columns.  Now,  if  the  difference  had 
been  made  small,  (eight  columns  in  front,  and  nine  in  flank, 
for  instance,)  the  whole,  if  not  square,  would  have  appeared 
as  though  intended  to  be  square  ; and  if  really  square,  the 


* Symbolic  of  perfection,  as  we  see  by  Scriptural  texts, — Kings  vi.  20;  Rev.  xxi 
16.  In  all  the  measurements  of  the  temple  no  cube  occurs  but  that  of  the  “most 
holy  place.” 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


119 


closer  placing  of  the  columns  on  one  side  than  the  other, 
would  have  destroyed  all  the  perfection  and  symmetry  of 
that  form  ; and,  in  either  case,  the  idea  conveyed  would  be 
that  of  a blundering  attempt  at  squareness.  Abandoning 
this  form,  therefore,  the  architects  adopted  as  their  funda- 
mental form  the  next  most  perfect  for  regular)  rectangle, 
viz.,  a double  square. 

That  every  temple  ( except  that  piece  of  barbaric  pomp  at 
Palmyra ) should  present  its  narrower  face  as  the  front,  is 
referred  by  Papworth*  to  the  avoiding  all  approach  to  show , 
or  displaying  itself  to  the  best  advantage, — -a  very  noble 
idea,  and  one  which  doubtless  operated  both  with  the  Greeks 
and  their  nearest  followers,  the  Gothicists.  But  it  may  be 
observed,  that  there  is  a less,  refined  reason,  which  has  led 
all  nations  (probably,  without  exception,)  to  make  the  axis 
of  symmetry  in  their  temples  longitudinal , and  in  their  palaces 
transverse ; the  temple  being  always  entered  from  its  end,  and 
the  palace  from  its  side.  The  latter  being  divided  into  many 
apartments  requires  the  entrance  in  that  place  which  will 
most  readily  communicate  with  them  all,  i.  e.  as  near  the 
centre  as  possible;  but  the  temple  being  a single  room  will 
have  the  best  effect  when  the  eye  on  entering  can  embrace 
the  largest  portion  of  it  at  once,  for  it  is  impossible  ever  to 
see  the  whole  interior  even  from  a corner,  because  the  eye 
cannot  receive  distinct  impressions  over  a circle  of  the  retina 
more  than  45°,  or  at  the  utmost  60°,  in  diameter.  Now  by 
taking -two  lines  fixed  at  this  angle,  a folding  rule,  for 
instance,  and  laying  it  on  the  plan  of  any  room,  you  will 
find,  by  moving  it  about,  that  position  in  which  they  include 
the  greatest  portion  of  the  area;  and  it  will  be  found  that 
the  more  an  oblong  room  deviates  from  the  square,  the  more 
of  it  can  you  thus  see  at  once;  and  that,  when  the  room  is 
a double  square,  or  longer,  the  best  position  for  the  point  of 
view  is  the  centre  of  an  end;  and  the  worst  is  the  centre  of 


* Tn  the  excellent  Essay  on  Grecian  Architecture,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Sir 
W.  Chambers,  to  which  I owe  much  assistance  in  this  inquiry 


180 


HISTOKY  AST)  RUDIMENTS 


a side,  (m  which  place  tlie  great  temple  at  Palmyra  ur  en- 
tered .)  The  general  use  of  the  former  place,  therefore,  in 
ancient  (as  well  as  Gothic)  temples,  is  a sacrifice  of  external 
show  to  internal  effect. 

It  may  here  be  remarked,  that  the  Bare  of  the  Greek 
temples  was  not  that  gloomy,  naked  cell  that  seme  imagine; 
neither  was  it  confined  to  the  priests,  but  open  to  all.  To 
Eergusson  is  due  the  merit  of  first  elucidating  how  if  was 
roofed  and  lighted.  His  theory  bears  internal  evidence  of  its 
truth,  being  the  most  perfect  mode  of  lighting  ever  employed, 
viz.,  by  what  we  call  in  England  a clerestory,  but  without  anf 
ether  windows  Idow.  There  is  an  example  of  it  at  St.  Gene- 
vieve, Paris,  The  Greek  clerestory  did  not  rise  above,  or 
in  any  way  break,  the  simple  out-planes  of  the  roof,  while  it 
varied  their  otherwise  too  monotonous  surface.  The  notion 
that  most  Greek  temples  were  open  courts,  or  (to  use  this 
writeris  words)  a **a  sham  temple,”  “a  colonnade  and  dead 
wall  surrounding  nothing,”  is  beneath  notice. 

But  with  all  the  precautions  for  external  utility,  it  would 
still  have  been  imperfect  but  for  the  one  crowning,  all-includ- 
ing feature — the  roof,  with  its  one  ridge  and  one  pediment 
('only  one  being  possibly  visible  at  once.)  On  this  point, 
Pap  worth  observes, — “ Towards  obtaining  this  unity  of 
effect  and  character,  the  combining  quality  of  the  roof  is 
obviously  necessary  in  the  Greek  temple;  it  combines  in  one 
span  the  cell,  the  portico,  and  the  peristyle,  without  which 
they  would  be  viewed  as  parts  merely,  and  to  which  the  steps, 
or  base  supporting  the  whole,  greatly  contribute. 

“ To  complete  this  unity  of  effect,  only  one  approach  was 
obvious  under  any  view  of  the  building;  indeed,  so  carefully 
was  this  principle  attended  to,  that  on  the  flanks  of  the  edifice 
the  spaces  were  arranged  in  even  numbers,  so  that  a column 
was  placed  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  not  an  inter- 
columniation,  while  the  actual  approach  was  always  decidedly 
indicated  by  a central  opening  in  the  portico,  and  by  the 
centre-marking  character  of  the  pediment,” 


OF  ARCHITECTURE, 


181 


The  base  above  alluded  to  was  always  (in  the  pure  Greek 
or  Doric  style ) equal  in  height  to  about  a diameter  of  the 
columns,  and  the  architrave  was  the  same  : otherwise  these 
two  principal  parts  would  have  seemed  inadequate  to  bear 
the  pressure  of  those  columns,  concentrated  on  distinct 
points  of  their  length.  The  base  was,  moreover,  for  con- 
venience subdivided  into  throe  equal  steps  and  no  more  ; for, 
had  the  steps  been  much  lower  than  a third  of  a diameter, 
they  would  have  seemed  thin,  paper-like  layers,  quite  out  of 
place  below  those  weighty  masses.  Neither  could  a Grecian 
eye  have  tolerated  the  breaking  of  these  continuous  lines  by 
the  introduction  of  smaller  steps  or  mounting-blocks  opposite 
the  entrance  or  elsewhere.  They  preferred  the  inconvenience 
of  ascending  steps,  15,  20,  and  even  25  inches  high  ; and 
unless  we  can  submit  to  this  inconvenience,  all  attempt  to 
copy  a Grecian  portico  will  be  an  absurb  caricature. 

In  all  great  and  complete  buildings,  of  whatever  style,  the 
basement,  even  to  a considerable  height,  consists  wholly  of 
horizontal  lines,  running  'without  any  interruption,  rise  or  fall, 
round  the  entire  structure.  Salisbury  and  Milan  cathedrals 
are  the  grand  examples,  but  it  is  seen  in  all  smaller  Gothic 
works  if  pure,  and  completed  on  one  design.  The  peculiarity, 
therefore,  of  the  Greek  basement  was  not  the  unbroken 
horizontality  of  its  lines,  but  their  unbroken  plan — straight 
from  corner  to  corner. 

In  the  Grecian  design,  up  to  the  roof,  we  find  all  principal 
members  and  lines  horizontal,  and  all  secondary  ones  vertical 
— a consequence  of  constructive  truth  ; the  vertical-pressure 
construction  requiring  all  continuous  joints  to  be  horizontal, 
and  all  discontinuous  ones  vertical. 

This  truth  also  required  the  continuation  of  the  cornice 
horizontally  across  the  ends,  ( though  not  there  necessary  to 
throw  off  the  wet, ) because  the  two  inclined  cornices  above 
would  have  given  the  expression  of  oblique  pressure,  unless 
tied  together  into  one  triangle  by  this  feature.  By  this 
means  the  construction  of  the  roof,  though  not  possible  to 

16 


182 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


be  displayed,  was  truly  indicated  externally.  Moreover,  a 
support  was  afforded  for  the  glorious  ornaments  iu  the  pedi- 
ments, which  gave  life  to  the  whole. 

In  descending  from  the  general  design  to  that  of  the  parts, 
we  find  every  where  * (in  the  Doric  order)  the  principle  of 
contrast  carried  to  the  utmost  extreme  ; the  opposite  one  of 
gradation  being  as  nearly  as  possible  excluded.  I am  con- 
vinced that  if  we  really  understood  this  principle  of  contrasty 
and  determined  to  embody  it  alone  without  compromise,  in 
a vertical-pressure  building,  we  should  be  led  to  the  complete 
Doric  order,  though  we  had  never  seen  it. 

To  begin  with  the  most  indispensable  feature  of  Greek 
buildings,  the  cornice,  (for  columns  and  architraves  were  not 
of  universal  use,)  we  must  observe  that  in  all  countries  where 
it  rains  at  all  (even  in  Egypt)  this  feature  springs  out  of  an 
absolute  constructive  necessity  : for  it  is  impossible  com- 
pletely and  durably  to  exclude  wet  at  the  junction  of  the 
roof  and  walls,  but  by  making  the  roof  plane  advance  be- 
yond and  cover  this  junction.  (Fig.  a.)  It  is  obvious  to  a 
child  that  this  must  effect  the  object  at  once.  But  as  in 
China  it  is  necessary  that  women  should  not  walk,  and  in 
Japan  that  teeth  should  be  black,  so  it  is  necessary  in 
England  that  this  natural  arrangement  of  roof  and  wall 
should  be  reversed,  that  the  roof  should  be  rather  less  than 
sufficient  to  cover  the  building,  and  the  wall  raised  to  con- 
ceal the  junction.  Of  course,  this  requires  a great  waste  of 
expense  in  misconstruction,  or  rather  patching,  to  keep  out 
the  wet  from  season  to  season  ; but  on  this,  trades  are  said 
to  depend  ; and,  of  course,  the  original  falsehood  has  to  be 
concealed,  disguised,  and  palliated  by  lie  upon  lie.  (Fig.  b.) 


The  tissue  of  errors  to  which  we  are  thus  led  will  appear 
more  clearly  by  the  following  comparison. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


183 


Junction  of  the  roo  f and  wall  in  an 
English  building. 

P,  The  wall-pla  e.  T,  The  tie  beam. 
R.  A princi  pal  rafter. 
r,  One  of  the  min  nr  rafters  not  tbd 
by  the  feet  but  thrusting  out- 
wards, and  having  to  be  s ipported 
by  the  pole-plate  and  a purlin  (not 
seen)  which,  concentrating  the 
whole  weight  on  one  p int  of  the 
principal  rafter  R,  calls  for  un- 
necessary strenar’h  therein.  Above 
r is  seen  a fourth  set  of  supports, 
they?cs£o1  which  four  se:  s would 
have  sufficed  if  properly  distri- 
bu’ed.  since  it  supports  all  the 
o'hers  besides  the  covering. 
es,  The  sla'es  or  tiles  made  so  short  as 
by  their  overlapping  to  become 
much  1 ss  inclined  than  the  general 
plane  of  the  roof,  and  thus  call  for 
unnecessary  height  therein. 

C,  The  parapet  or  roof-hider,  built 
chiefly  on  roting  wood 
G,  The  lead  gutter,  capable  of  over- 
flowing or  leaking  only  within  the 
building,  and  immediately  over 
the  chief  timbers. 

W,  The  whole  weight  of  the  roof  con- 
centrated on  a point  far  within  the 
walls,  deflectmg  the  tie-beam  and 
thereby  thrusting  the  wall  out- 
ward. 


Junction  of  the  roof  and  wall  in  a 
Grezk  build  ■ g. 

A,  The  .architrave,  or  last  wall-course 

but  two. 

B,  The  frieze. 

C,  The  cornice  or  salient  course. 

P,  The  wall-plate.  T,  The  tie-beam. 

R,  A principal  rafter. 

rr,  Minor  horizontal  rafters  or  purlins, 
numerous  enough  to  distribute 
their  weight  equally  throughout 
the  leng;  h of  tne  principal  rafter 
R,  and  immediately  receiving  the 
covering. 

tt.  The  tiles,  or  marble  slates,  in  either 
case  made  long  enough  to  have 
nearly  as  much  inclination  as  the 
rafter  R. 

E,  The  epitithedas  (overseting)  or 
stone  gutter,  entirely  without  the 
building,  and  the  inner  brim  of 
which,  being  higher  than  the 
outer,  prevented  the  possibility 
of  an  overflow  weting  the  timbers. 

W,  Hhe  weight  of  the  roof  ac’ing  on 
the  exact  ce/ntre  of  the  wall’s 
thickness,  steadying  and  not 
thrusting  it,and  not  deflecting  the 
tie-beam. 


But  the  intense  ugliness  of  buildings  without  apparent 
covers,  or  with  covers  just  too  small,  and  sliping  down 
within,*  of  course  leads  to  the  necessity  of  a sham  cornice, 


* The  parapet  fashion  is  derived  from  the  Gothic  system,  in  which  this  feature 
was  neither  a deception,  nor  did  it  lead  to  faulty  construction;  for  the  walls  of 
churches  thus  finished  were  at  least  two  feet  thick,  allowing  room  for  a gutter  in 
the  centre,  between  two  little  walls,  of  which  the  ou*er  constitutes  the  parapet, 
and  the  inner  (often  nearly  or  quite  as  high)  receives  the  foot  of  the  roofing  ; a l 
the  timbers  of  which  are  thus  raised  above  the  level  of  the  gutter  and  its  outlets, 
and  thus  perfectly  safe  from  wet.  Dr.  Moller  first  noticed  this  excellent  contrivance 
in  the  minster  of  Freyburg  ; it  is  the  same  at  Winchester  and  other  English  build- 
ings But  if  we  want  to  adopt  the  principles  on  the  thin  walls  of  modern  shells, 
of  course  we  have  no  means  but  by  overhanging  outwardly  like  the  Grecian 
cornice 


184 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


a huge  construction  of  lath  (or  other  pendent  contrivances^ 
and  plaster,  the  burden  of  which,  pulling  on  the  thin  outer 
screens,  is  supposed  further  beneficial  to  trade.  This  piece 
of  scenery  is  sometimes  continued  all  round,  but  generally 
confined  to  a side  or  two,  and  returns  round  the  angle  a few 
inches,  in  order  to  give  the  spectator  the  double  pleasure  of 
being  deceived  when  so  placed  as  to  see  only  one  side,  and 
undeceived  when  he  turns  the  corner. 


THE  FRIEZE  OR  NECKING  TRACED  FROM 


Egyptian  Greek  Greek  Greek  Rt  man 

WaU.  Wall.  Column.  Antse.  Column. 


Below  the  cornice  of  the  Greek  building  we  always  find 
a band  called  the  frieze;  and  below  the  projections  which 
crown  the  columns,  the  antae,  and  every  other  principal  mem- 
ber, we  recognize  the  same  peculiarity;  each  has  its  frieze  or 
necking,  the  division  between  it  and  the  mass  below  being 
differently  marked  in  each  case,  but  always  by  a line  of 
shadow.  In  the  general  necking  of  the  building  (at  least  of 
a temple)  this  line  of  shadow  is  cast  by  the  projecting  fillet 
called  the  taenia;  in  antoe , and  the  basements  of  some  tombs, 
it  arises  from  a general  overhanging  of  the  frieze  before  the 
plane  below  ; and  in  columns,  and  the  basement  of  Lysicra- 
tes’  monument,  it  is  formed  by  a groove,  the  direct  reverse 
of  the  first  method,  but  agreeing  with  it  in  the  production 
of  a line  of  shadow.  This  peculiar  echo  of  the  main  shadow, 
by  a smaller  one  beneath  it,  seems  to  have  been  first  faintly 
developed  in  Egypt,  seized  upon  and  (like  every  thing  they 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


185 


touched)  perfected  by  the  Greeks,  and  to  have  descended  by 
tradition  for  8000  years,  through  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
Roman,  Romanesque,  Gothic,  and  post-Gothic  fashions  to 
our  own  day. 

A hundred  generations  of  men  have  now  admired  this  pe- 
culiarity,— have  felt  that  it  could  not  be  omitted  without  de- 
terioration of  beauty.  Why  is  this  ? 

Let  us  hazard  a conjecture.  We  have  said  that  there  can 


EGYPTIAN  INTO  MODERN  ARCHITECTURE. 


Roman  Early  Gothic  Gothic  Late  Gothic  Modern 

Arch-pier.  Shaft.  Basement.  Pedestal.  Wall. 


be  no  contrast  between  two  things  totally  dissimilar.  Con- 
sequently, there  can  be  none  between  two  such  things  as  a 
cornice  or  capital,  and  the  wall  or  mass  below  it.  They 
have  no  point  in  common.  Now,  if  we  can  introduce  be- 
tween the  two,  something  that  shall  have  a resemblance  to 
the  cornice  in  one  respect,  and  a semblance  to  the  wall  or 
mass  below  in  another  respect,  it  may  form  a contrast  with 
each.  This  can  be  done  by  cutting  off  (by  a line,)  from  the 
general  mass,  a portion  about  equal  in  height  to  the  cap- 
ing,  or  the  mass  of  shadow  cast  by  it.  This  will  resemble 
the  dark  band  above  in  size,,  but  contrast  with  it  in  luminosi- 
ty : it  will  resemble  the  mass  beneath  in  'position  and  lumin- 
osity, but  contrast  with  it  in  size ; and  thereby  increase  its 
apparent  height,  which,  I think,  any  one  must  perceive  a 
frieze  or  necking  to  do. 

In  Egypt,  the  frieze  and  cornice  formed  one  concave 


186 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


sweep,  [though  the  intense  sunshine  of  that  climate  casts 
the  shadow  of  the  latter  in  such  a way  as  to  form  a sharp 
contrast  of  a dark  and  light  band  nearly  equal.]  But  the 
Greeks,  aiming  at  the  most  unmitigated  contrast,  thought 
the  curved  surface  too  light  a form  for  the  severe  sublimity, 
which  was  their  object.  They,  therefore,  made  the  soffite 
and  the  f rieze  two  distinct  planes,  meeting  [at  first,  proba- 
bly,] with  a right-angled  nook.  The  mutules , fancied  by 
some  into  copies  of  wooden  construction,  have  not  the 
slightest  resemblance  to  any  thing  of  the  kind,  being  far  too 
thin  and  broad  for  any  rafters’  feet ; moreover,  the  practice 
of  falsification,  or  copying  one  material  in  another,  was  to- 
tally opposed  in  principle  to  every  thing  the  Greeks  ever 
did.  These  features,  together  with  their  drops,  are  sup- 
posed, by  Papworth,  to  be  intended  among  other  purposes  to 
break  up  and  confuse  the  edge  of  the 'shadow  cast  down  on 
the  frieze,  which  edge,  if  straight,  would  most  harshly  cut 
the  sculptures  thereon  by  a sharp  line,  besides  appearing 
like  an  architectural  division,  which,  varying  in  place  with 
the  time  of  day,  could  not  always  be  pleasing  ; and  “ that 
principle  in  architecture  would  be  violated  which  prevents 
the  projected  shadows  from  disturbing  the  adjusted  propor- 
tions.” The  triple  tiers  of  drops,  it  may  be  observed,  so 
situated  as  to  be  always  seen  in  perspective,  present  the  only 
ornament  consistent  with  severe  simplicity  ; owing  all  its 
beauty  to  regular  repetition  of  similar  objects,  without  any 
beauty  of  form  in  the  objects  themselves,  or  any  introduc- 
tion of  the  principle  of  gradation,  except  that  unavoidably 
produced  by  perspective.  The  idea  of  such  an  ornament 
may  have  been  taken  from  plants  in  a field,  uniformly  ar- 
ranged for  agricultural  economy. 

The  triglyphs  are  now  generally  thought  to  have  been  [as 
regards  the  mere  idea]  derived  from  the  clusters  of  upright 
reeds  alternating  with  ciphers  or  monograms  on  the  Egyp- 
tian frieze-cornice.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  the  mere  aim 
at  contrast  and  severe  simplicity  is  quite  sufficient  to  have 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


187 


rendered  them  necessary.  The  mass  of  horizontal  lines  in 
the  entablature  required  to  be  contrasted  by  vertical  ones, 
and  the  frieze  was  the  only  place  admitting  them,  the  cutting 
of  the  architrave  vertically  being  such  an  obvious  faslehood 
as  not  to  be  entertained  for  a moment,  while  the  chief  plane 
of  the  cornice  was  horizontal.  But  the  vertical  lines  could 
not  be  repeated  all  along  the  frieze  without,  not  only  great 
monotony,  but  positive  physical  injury  to  the  eye,  as  any  one 
may  find  who  looks  intently  at  a numerous  set  of  parallel 
lines.  The  alternation  of  a group  of  lines  and  a square  of 
sculpture  more  completely  carried  out  the  principle  of  con- 
trast, besides  giving  a field  for  the  sculptor.  In  Egypt, 
each  of  these  groups  of  vertical  lines  consisted  of  five  or  six 
hemi-cylinders  ; but  the  Greeks  confined  it  to  the  smallest 
number  of  repetitions  that  could  exhibit  equal-spacing,  viz., 
three, — and,  instead  of  the  soft  rounded  hemi-cylinders,  they 
adopted  the  graver  form  of  octagonal  prisms  ; obliquity  [but 
not  curvature]  being  admitted  in  these  minor  features,  rather 
to  enhance  the  severe  rectangularity  of  principal  parts,  than 
from  a childish  search  after  variety. 

The  two  planes  of  the  frieze  and  the  soffite  being  thus 
each  crossed  by  transverse  lines,  it  became  an  object  that 
these  two  systems  of  lines  should  make  the  most  intensely 
rectangular  contrast  with  each  other,  not  really-— but  visu- 
ally : for  this  purpose,  the  real  angle  between  them  was  di- 
minished to  less  than  a right  angle,  by  making  the  soffite 
slope  forward,  which  has  the  effect  intended  in  whatever 
way  viewed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  sketches. 


— ^ 

i 

1 

J 

;'i 
!l;  iii  I 

d 

<x 

a represents  a Doric  entablature,  with  the  soffite  sloping 
over  in  the  usual  manner,  in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  all 


188 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


the  angles  a,  d,  c,  & c.,  appear,  in  consequence  of  the  perspec- 
tive, more  nearly  right  angles,  t.  e.,  more  abruptly  contrasted 
than  the  corresponding  angles  in  Fig.  b,  which  shows  the 
appearance  of  a horizontal  soffite.  This  effect  will  be  equally 
true  in  an  angular  view,  as  seen  in  the  two  figures  below. 
(a  horizontal, — ^inclined  soffite. 


We  must  here,  again,  protest  against  that  insolent  libel 
on  the  Greek  architects,  the  wooden  theory  of  Yitruvius  and 
Milizia,  who,  of  all  writers  on  architecture  or  building,  per- 
haps give  the  fewest  hints  at  general  principles.  In  the  case 
of  the  inclination  of  the  soffite,  this  barbarous  theory  is  at 
once  disproved  by  two  facts,  the  inclination  being  observed 
on  the  fronts  equally  with  the  sides  of  the  building,  and  its 
angle  being  wholly  independent  of  that  of  the  roof.  To  aid 
the  effect,  the  frieze  was  made  to  incline  imperceptibly 
backward,  and  the  architrave  also,  because  any  want  of 
parallelism  between  them  would  have  become  obvious  at  the 
corners. 

The  architrave  being  evidently  the  most  important  con- 
structive member  in  this  style,  we  need  not  comment  on  the 
perfect  fitness  of  the  severe,  uncompromising  plainness, 
strength-expressing  squareness,  and  majestic  breadth  of 
light  and  shade,  on  its  face  and  soffite.  The  only  approach 
to  decoration*  appears  at  its  very  top,  and  so  connected  with 
that  of  the  frieze,  as  evidently  to  be  intended  only  to  recon- 
cile the  abrupt  difference  (not  contrast,  but  contradiction) 


* The  shields  and  other  metallic  objects  attached  to  the  architrave  of  the  Par 
thenon,  being  not  ajpourt  of  it,  did  not  interfere  with  its  nobly  severe  expression. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


189 


otherwise  occurring  between  the  completely  ornate  and  com- 
pletely plain  member.  The  decoration  is  applied  under  each 
triglyph,  because  the  same  number  and  quantity  of  horizontal 
lines  that  suffice  to  support  and  bound  the  metope  sculpture 
would  not  suffice  to  stop  and  contrast  these  groups  of  strong 
vertical  lines.  The  principle  is  exactly  that  which  led  the 
Italians,  whenever  they  had  a string-course  serving  as  sill  to 
a tier  of  windows,  always  to  attach  something,  it  hardly 
matters  what,  under  each  window  or  each  window-jamb. 
The  sub-triglyphs  are  simply  repetitions  (with  less  projection ) 
of  the  mutules  ; and  this  repetition  serves  more  than  any- 
thing else,  except  the  cap  and  necking  repetition,  to  give  unity 
of  style. 

Descending  to  the  column,  we  must  observe  that  the  pro- 
file obtained,  as  already  explained  by  the  generalized  imita- 
tion of  limbs,  though  perfectly  proper  for  the  support  of  a 
plane  extending  in  every  direction  from  the  capital,  fas  a flat 
ceiling,)  requires  an  addition  to  fit  it  for  placing  under  a 
beam  that  extends  on  only  two  sides  of  it.  Unless  the  archi- 
trave were  as  wide  as  the  echinus  (which  would  render  the 
whole  top-heavy),  it  would  not  press  on  the  whole  of  that 
member  which  is  essential  to  preserve  the  analogy  with  an 
animal  extremity.  The  abacus,  then,  presents  the  simplest 
possible  way  of  spreading  this  pressure  over  the  whole  capi- 
tal, and  its  thickness  is  regulated  by  what  is  found  by 
experience  just  to  give  the  expression  of  sufficiency  to  this 
purpose.  If  too  thin,  it  is  apparently  useless,  and  if  too 
thick,  unnecessarily  massive. 

The  shaft,  as  already  noticed,  though  required  by  con- 
venience to  be  round,  is,  nevertheless,  made  to  present  square 
(right-angled)  edges.  Nothing  could  be  so  contradictory  in 
principle,  to  everything  else  in  the  Doric  order,  as  the  sleek 
fatness  of  a completely  rounded  shaft,  whose  mass  only  gives 
it  clumsiness  without  the  slightest  expression  of  power.  A 
Dorian  entirely  debarred  from  the  use  of  flutings  would 
have  made  his  columns  square,  at  whatever  sacrifice  of  con- 


190 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


venience.  The  first  improvement  on  the  square  would  be 
by  truncating  its  angles,  to  reduce  it  first  to  an  octangular, 
and  then  to  a 16-sided  prism.  But  the  contrast  between 
two  successive  sides  of  this  being  very  slight,  and  liable  to 
be  counteracted  by  the  faintest  weather-stain,  this  contrast 
was  exaggerated  to  the  utmost,  by  so  hollowing  out  each 
face  as  to  reduce  the  arris  to  a right  angle.  The  same  thing 
was  done  for  the  same  reason  by  the  Gothicists  in  many  of 
their  octagonal  features  (see  ninth  example  in  the  parallel 
of  neckings  in  p 185).  There  is  only  one  case,  however,  of 
the  16-sided  shaft — that  bold  example  crowning  the  promon- 
tory of  Sunium  (Cape  Colonna),  evidently  designed  for  dis- 
tant view.  Everywhere  else  we  find  the  sides  increased  to 
twenty,  on  account  of  the  common-sense  principle  which 
requires  that  in  every  structure,  as  solids  should  be  over 
solids,  and  voids  over  voids,  so  should  projections  be  over 
projections,  and  recesses  over  recesses.  Let  the  square  in 
the  annexed  figure  be  the  plan  of  the  abacus,  and  aba,  part 
of  that  of  a 16-fluted  shaft.  If  a recess  be  placed  as  at  a a , 
beneath  the  most  receding  parts  of  the  abacus,  (or  those 
nearest  the  axis,)  then  a recess  also,  as  at  b,  will  come 
under  its  most  prominent  point. 

Bat  by  increasing  the  flutes  to 
twenty,  one  can  be  placed  cen- 
trally under  each  face  of  the 
abacus,  as  at  c c,  and  an  arris 
(or  greatest  projection)  at  d, 
under  the  angle  of  that  member. 

This  could  not  have  been  ob- 
tained with  any  other  number  of 
flutes,  between  twelve  and  twenty-eight,  of  whkfii  the  former 
might  probably  be  used  with  advantage  in  bold  plain  engi- 
neering works,  but  the  latter  would  introduce  too  much  of 
the  principle  of  gradation,  in  the  seven  gradually  diminishing 
quantities,  from  the  visual  middle  of  the  column  to  its 
visual  side. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE 


191 


It  might  be  thought  that  contrast  would  be  better  con- 
sulted by  making  every  recess  or  flute,  a pair  of  planes 
meeting  in  a nook,  as  if  the  plan  consisted  of  five  superposed 
squares  (as  practised  in  some  Egyptian  works  with  a smaller 
number)  ; but  not  only  would  this  introduce  unnecessary 
complexity  by  doubling  the  number  of  lines,  but  by  drawing 
the  outline  elevation  of  such  a column,  we  shall  find,  in 
going  from  the  centre  to  the  side,  a breach  of  continuity — a 
sudden  change  in  the  law  of  gradation,  at  that  recess  where 
we  first  lose  sight  of  the  nook-line.  Though  gradation  was 
to  be  avoided,  it  was  felt  that  wherever  it  did  unavoidably 
occur,  it  should  be  continuous.  A sudden  breach  in  any 
gradation  is  ugliness,  because  it  is  neither  regularity  nor 
irregularity.  It  is  the  same  principle  on  which  we  condemn 
the  sudden  change  of  curvature  in  the  Tudor  quell,  and  any 
change  from  one  curve  into  another,  except  the  perfectly 
contrasted  flexure,  as  noticed  in  Chapter  II. 

There  are  obviously  only  three  simple  modes  of  striating 
columns — by  convexities  alone  ( reeding ) — by  concavities 
alone  ( Doric  fluting ),  and  by  alternate  concavities  and  con- 
vexities ( scalloping ).  The  last  is  the  mode  most  common  in 


ScaUoping.  Reeding.  Doric  fluting. 


nature,  because  regular  striation  is  here  confined  to  elegant 
(not  grand)  objects,  and  this  is  abstractedly  the  most  elegant 
kind,  being  all  gradation  and  no  contrast.  Of  the  other  two 
modes,  the  Doric  affords  most  contrast,  for  several  reasons. 
First,  all  its  lines  (which  are  the  only  places  where  contrast 
of  light  and  shade  can  occur)  are  visible, — while  in  the 
reeded  column,  only  a few  of  the  nook-lines  can  be  seen  at 
once.  Next,  only  two  of  these  nooks  in  the  reeded  example 
can  so  receive  the  sun  as  to  have  one  side  shaded  and  yet  the 
other  not  shadowed  by  it  as  at  a,  b.  In  the  nook  c,  both 


192 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


sides  receive  light,  though  not  equally  ; and  in  d,  one  casts 
its  shadow  on  the  other  : now  the  edge  of  a cast  shadow 
can  never  have  the  sharpness  of  contrast  that  an  actual  edge 
of  a body  has.  Moreover,  in  concave  surfaces,  as  already 
remarked,  the  cast  shadow  of  the  edge  often  (in  sunshine) 
reduces  great  part  of  the  concavity  to  equable  shade,  and 
thus  obviates  part  of  the  gradation  that  is  unavoidable  on 
convexities. 

The  angular  plan  of  the  column  ceases  at  the  top  of  the 
shaft,  because  its  continuation  throughout  the  swell,  or 
echinus,  would  introduce  too  maAy  curved  lines.  It  would 
be  more  elegant  than  the  present  capital,  but  less  fit  in  a 
composition  of  which  grand  severity  (not  elegance)  was  the 
aim,  and  in  which  the  curves  were  made  as  few  as  would 
just  suffice  to  give  greater  value  to  the  general  rectangularity. 
The  long  fluting  lines,  then,  being  stopped  suddenly,  the 
same  principle  that  called  for  the  sub-triglyph,  required  here 
the  contrast  of  strong  and  repeated  horizontal  lines.  One 
was  not  sufficient  to  stop  such  long  and  strong  lines  as  the 
arrises;  so  three,  four,  or  five  of  these  stopping  lines  ( annulets ) 
were  made,  according  to  the  height  of  the  column,  and  their 
profile  carefully  studied  to  produce  the  strongest  alternation 
of  light  and  shade.  The  Paestans  trusted  to  intensity  instead 
of  number,  and  substituted  one  deep,  black  hollow,  but  the 
leaves  introduced  therein  show  a great  decline  from  Doric 
severity.  Indeed,  all  the  colonial  examples  are  very  impure. 

The  diminution  and  entasis,  essential  to  the  character  of 
limb-columns,  do  not,  as  might  be  thought,  interfere  with  the 
severe  rectangularity  of  the  style,  but  actually  increase  it 
when  seen  from  a near  point  of  view.  To  explain  this,  we 
must  remember  that  the  ocular  images  of  objects  are  formed 
on  the  retina,  which  is  not  a plane  but  a spherical  surface, 
and  the  most  severely  contrasted  angle  is  not  always  an 
actual  right  angle,  nor  yet  that  which  appears  most  so  in 
perspective,  but  that  whose  image  on  the  retina  is  most  right- 
angled.  Every  designer  should  understand  spherical  perspec- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


193 


live,  i.  e.,  projection  on  a spherical  surface  of  which  the  eye  is 
the  centre.  It  is  by  no  means  a difficult  subject,  perhaps 
easier  than  ordinary  perspective  ; and  the  architect  would  do 
well  to  consider  (as  the  Greeks  did)  not  only  the  elevation, 
and  the  effects  in  plane  perspective,  but  especially  the 
spherical  projections  of  any  thing,  for  those  alone  are  really 
its  visual  appearances. 

Now,  when  we  examine  a colonnade,  arcade,  or  any 
similar  alternation  of  masses  and  voids,  we  never  place  our- 
selves opposite  a mass  or  projection,  (column,  pier,  or  but- 
tress,) but  always  opposite  a recess,  (intercolumn,  arch,  or 
window.  The  visual  outline  of  the  column,  then,  is  less 
important  than  that  of  the  intercolumn.  Every  one  must 
have  observed,  when  opposite  a Doric  intercolumn,  at  a 
distance  about  equalto  its  height,  or  rather  more,  the  intense 
squareness  of  its  effect.  This  is  because  its  ocular  image  is 
more  rectangular  than  if  the  opening  were  actually  rectan- 
gular, like  a doorway.  Let  e,  in  the  following  figure,  be  the 
place  of  the  eye  in  a horizontal  plane,  x x ; and  let  the 
vertical  plane  a.  c,  a c,  contain  the  geometrical  elevations  of 
two  columns,  c c.  If  the  sides  of  the  intercolumn  (or  a.  e, 


a b)  were  vertical,  they  would  be  projected  in  spherical 
perspective  as  two  portions  of  great  circles*  meeting  in  the 
spectator’s  zenith.  Consequently,  the  image  of  the  opening 
would  diminish  upward,  like  a piece  of  one  of  the  gores  of  a 
globe  ; and  its  top,  b b.,  being  projected,  also,  as  a portion 
of  a great  circle,  would  make  an  obtuse  angle  with  each  of 
the  sides.  But  let  it  be  required  to  make  the  ocular  image 

* Every  straight  line  becomes  in  this  projection  a portion  of  a great  circle. 

n 


194 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


as  seen  from  e,  parallel-sided  and  rectangular.  The  sides  of 
this  image  will  then  be  parts  of  the  two  parallel  circles,  a b 
c d,  ab  c d.  The  rays  drawn  from  e through  every  point  of 
these  two  circles  will  form  two  very  obtuse  cones,  whose 
common  vertex  is  at  e,  and  their  common  axis  x x ; and  the 
vertical  plane  c c (being  parallel  with  their  axis)  will  so  cut 
these  two  cones  as  to  form  the  two  hyperbolas  a b,  a b, 
which  will  be  the  form  that  must  be  given  to  the  lines  that 
are  to  appear  parallel,  as  seen  fjtom  e.  To  give  the  opening, 
therefore,  the  utmost  effect  of  rectangularity,  (as  seen  from 
this  distance,)  the  sides  of  the  columns  must  be  a pair  of 
opposite  hyperbolas,  having  their  common  centre  at  s,  and 
their  asymptotes,  s,  s,  s s , making  the  same  angle  as  e c,  e c , 
consequently  the  same  as  a e a ; or  the  angle  which  the 
breadth  of  the  intercolumn  subtends  from  the  distance  chosen, 
which  distance  will  vary  greatly  of  course  in  different  designs, 
but  can  never  be  less  than  the  height  of  the  order,  because 
the  eye  cannot  see  the  whole  of  an  object  at  once  that  sub- 
tends more  than  45°. 

Whether  this  were  the  exact  curve  given  to  the  entasis, 
I have  no  means  of  ascertaining  ; but  this  seems  the  only 
reason  that  will  assign  any  particular  curve.  With  regard 
to  its  dependence  on  a certain  chosen-  distance  of  sight,  it 
must  be  observed  that,  nearer  than  this,  we  - can  only  see 
details,  and  hardly  take  in  a whole  column  or  intercolumn  ; 
while,  at  all  greater  distances,  we  take  in  several  such 
divisions,  and  estimate  their  form  rather  by  the  axes  than  the 
outlines  of  the  columns,  so  that  their  limb-like  form  does  not 
interfere  with  the  rectangular  nature  of  the  principal 
divisions.*  The  thought  and  provision  bestowed  by  the 

* Few  things  in  modern  Grecian  caricatures  are  uglier  than  the  upward  expan- 
sion in  the  width  of  a colonnade  of  some  length,  as  the  longest  one  in  the  front  of 
the  British  Museum.  The  columns  being  set  with  their  axes  upright,  their  inner 
sides  lean  away  from  the  wall,  and  (when  viewed  from  one  end  of  the  avenue) 
appear  falling.  This  effect  cannot  happen  with  a short  portico,  whose  length  does 
not  much  exceed  its  height,  because  the  opening  at  the  further  end,  (like  those 
mentioned  above,)  though  not  rectangular,  will  appear  so.  But  the  further  it  is 
removed,  the  less  correction  qf  this  kind  will  it  receive,  so  that  the  longer  the  colon- 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


195 


Doric  architects  on  the  effect  at  every  possible  distance  (from 
miles  down  to  inches,  from  their  work)  is  most  remarkable. 

The  optical  corrections  are  another  most  admirable  refine- 
ment peculiar  to  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks.  This  effect 
does  not  require  the  presence  of  more  than  one  column,  (so 
that  it  cannot  depend  on  the  intercolumn,)  and  it  disappears 
beyond  a moderate  distance.  It  is  explained  perfectly  by 
the  fact  that  when  the  eye  is  directed  to  the  middle  of  the 
column’s  height,  (which  it  must  be  to  see  the  whole,)  the 
upper  and  lower  parts  being,  the  one  more  distant,  and  the 
other  nearer,  than  the  part  to  which  the  eye  has  adjusted 
itself  ; they  will  both  produce  on  the  retina,  indistinct  images, 
out  of  focus,  and  therefore  too  wide.  The  effect  may  be  per- 
fectly imitated  with  a model  of  the  eye,  or  a camera-obscura. 
But  the  entasis  in  Greek  columns  is  commonly  more  than  suf- 
ficient to  correct  this  illusion,  and  so  we  should  expect  both 
from  the  treatment  of  the  intercolumn  above  explained,  and 
from  the  generalized  imitation  of  natural  columns. 

But  the  most  general  source  of  the  illusions  to  which  these 
corrections  were  applied,  was  irradiation , or  the  spreading 
of  luminous  impressions  on  the  retina.  It  is  this  which  makes 
the  angular  column  of  a portico,  seen  against  the  sky,  appear 
narrower  (unless  made  broader)  than  the  others  seen  against 
a ground  darker  than  themselves.  In  each  case,  the  lighter 
image  encroaches  on  the  limits  of  the  darker, 

— the  sky  on  the  dark  column, — the  fight 
columns  on  their  back-ground.  As  this  fact 
(perfectly  established  in  optics)  is  strangely 
disputed  by  some  architects,  we  subjoin  a 
figure  that  will  furnish  an  experimental  illus-  3=11  - , - -EEE3 
tration.  Let  the  reader,  from  the  distance  of  "" 

nade,  the  more  should  the  axes  of  the  columns  lean  inward,  though  they  never 
need  lean  so  much  as  to  make  the  inner  sides  quite  vertical.  We  should  therefore 
observe  this  proportion.  The  width  of  the  passage  at  the  floor  : that  at  the  ceil- 
ing, : : its  length  : the  diagonal  formed  by  that  length,  and  the  height  from  the  eye 
to  the  ceiling.  This  rule  would  make  the  inward  inclination  of  the  columns  on  the 
flarik,  of  a temple,  greater  than  on  the  front ; which  the  latest  measurements,  I 
believe,  have  shown  to  be  the  case 


196 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


a yard,  estimate  the  relative  widths  of  the  two  ends  of  this 
rectangle,  and  then  measure  them.  The  drops  under  the 
taenia,  if  made  cylindrical,  will  appear  to  taper  downwards, 
from  their  tops  being  seen  against  the  shadow  of  the  fillet 
above,  and  their  lower  ends  against  the  bright  surface.  To 
correct  this,  they  are  made  slightly  conical  in  the  contrary 
direction.  So,  also,  columns  with  vertical  sides  seen  against 
a wall,  the  upper  parts  of  wiich  are  shaded  more  than  the 
lower,  (as  always  happens  behind  a colonnade,)  will  appear 
to  taper  downwards  ; and  to  correct  this,  seems  the  only  ob- 
ject in  the  slight  and  hardly  perceptible  upward  diminution 
given  to  antee,  and  perhaps  that  of  columns  in  the  lighter 
orders,  which  are  not  imitated  from  the  animal  type. 

Some  other  corrections  may  be  called  rather  cesthetic  than 
optical,  being  directed  against  illusions  of  percejrtion  rather 
than  sense  ; many  of  which  may  be  traced  to  the  well-known 
effect  of  contrast,  always  to  make  the  difference  between  the 
things  contrasted  appear  greater  than  it  really  is.  Red  and 
green  placed  together,  appear  redder  and  greener  towards 
their  junction  than  at  a distance  therefrom  ; and  this  I hold 
to  be  applicable  to  all  contrasts  of  whatever  kind.*  Thus, 
angles  being  contrasts,  the  difference  of  direction  between 
their  two  lines  will  seem  greater  than  it  really  is  ; and  hence, 
except  in  the  case  of  a right  angle,  (where  this  difference  is 
a maximum,)  it  will  be  increased  ; i.  e.,  every  oblique  angle 
must  appear  less  oblique  than  it  is  ; an  acute  angle  be  ap- 
parently increased,  and  an  obtuse  angle  diminished.  To  this 
I attribute  the  fact,  that  the  general  outline  of  a portico, 
with  all  the  axes  of  its  columns  vertical,  seems  broader  at  the 
top, — an  effect  not,  I believe,  observable  when  there  is  no 
pediment.  In  the  outline,  we  have  three  obtuse  angles,  abb, 
each  of  which  being  apparently  diminished,  ('as  by  the 
dotted  lines  at  b b,)  all  will  evidently  conspire  to  make  the 


* It  is  very  obvious  in  contrasted  dimensions.  Whenever  they  are  not  greatly 
different,  (those  of  the  faciae  of  an  architrave,  for  instance.)  we  shaU  on  measure- 
ment always  find  that  we  have  orer-estimated  the  difference. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


197 


sides  apppear  to  over- 
hang, and  the  effect  will 
be  further  increased  when 
the  outline  is  connected 
with  the  ground-line,  not 

by  a right  angle  but  by  ^ ^ 

two  obtuse  ones,  as  at  d c, 

(which  often  occurs  from  a flight  of  thin  modern  steps,  or 
from  perspective  lines  of  stylobates,  &c.)  The  mere 
diminution  of  the  corner  column  is  not  sufficient  to  counter- 
act this  effect,  at  least  not  in  the  case  of  the  lighter  orders, 
where  the  diminution  is  so  much  less  than  in  the  Doric  ; and 
hence  the  axis  of  the  column  should  be  inclined,  and,  to 
equalize  the  spaces  between  the  capitals,  of  course  the  axes 
of  all  the  columns  must  have  a general  upward  convergence. 
This  agrees  with  the  result  of  the  latest  admeasurements. 

The  antique  orders  seem  to  have  originated  in  different 
parts  of  the  world — the  Doric  being  the  only  one  that  can 
properly  be  considered  a Greek  invention  ; the  Tuscan  a 
modification  of  the  Doric  ; the  Ionic  an  Asiatic  importation. 
The  Corinthian  a refinement  on  the  Egyptian  and  the  com- 
posite rather  what  its  name  would  import  than  a separate 
order.  In  all  Asiatic  styles,  also,  there  is  a tendency  towards 
lateral  projections  from  two  opposite  sides  of  the  capital, 
sometimes  turning  upward,  and  serving  as  brackets  to  the 
architrave  ; sometimes  pendent,  and  reminding  one  of  volutes, 
though  not  taking  that  form.  The  base  is  another  Asiatic 
feature,  and  regularly  increases,  the  further  east  we  go,  till 
in  India  it  sometimes,  with  its  innumerable  moulded  details, 
reaches  to  a height  exceeding  that  of  the  shaft  itself. 

Before  its  adoption  in  Greece,  the  Ionic  order  was  carried 
to  considerable  perfection  in  Asia  Minor,  in  a form  more 
nearly  approaching  that  now  used,  but  greatly  inferior  to  the 
Athenian  improvement,  which  we  have  already  briefly  men- 
tioned as  arising  from  an  accurate  feeling  for  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  five  classes  of  form  which  in  the  Asiatic  examples 
were  much  misplaced. 


198 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


There  is  a fair  specimen  of  these  works  in  the  fine  tomb 
or  monument  whose  remains  fill  the  Lycian  Room  at  the 
British  Museum,  and  I think  any  one  must  be  shocked  at  its 
want  of  an  apparent  architrave,  and  at  the  huge  block-like 
dentils,  fit  only  for  an  engineering  work,  placed  above  so 
delicate  an  order.  These  features  are  known  to  have  been 
anciently  practised  in  Asia  M^ior,  but  never  in  Greece.* 

* These  remarks  must  not  be  misunderstood  to  apply  to  any  thing  bejmnd  the 
order ; the  general  form  and  arrangement  of  that  and  other  Ionion  tombs  being 
above  criticism,  for  their/ grace,  lightness,  - variety,  and  cheerfulnees,  so  opposite 
to  the  gloomy  ugliness  and  sham  massiveness,  by  Christians  thought  essential  to 
every  thing  sepulchral.  The  most  famous  of  these  monuments,  that  of  Mausolus, 
which  has  given  a name  to  all  pompous  works  of  the  kind,  has  unfortunately  left 
no  vestige  ; and  the  statement  by  Pliny,  that  it  measured  on  the  north  and 
south  63  feet,  but  was  shorter  on  the  fronts,  yet  411  fep+  in  entire  circuit,  has 
made  it  a kind  ^)f  problem  to  restorers.  Supposing  the  fronts  to  be  (as  in  all 
ancient  buildings)  east  and  west,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  plan  must  have  been 
either  eight-sided  or  c iiciform.  The  former  would  by  its  oblique  angles  exclude 
the  use  of  the  Ionic  (the  national  and  sepulchral)  order.  The  expressions 
“ attolitur  in  altitudinem  xxv  cubitis  : cingitur  columnis  xxxvi  * * supra 
pteron  pyramis  altitudine  inferiorem  (pyramidein)  aequavit,  xxiv  gradibus  in 
inetge  cacumen  se  contrahens”  seem  to  imply  a basement  25  cubits  high,  then 
a colonnade,  and  above  it  a pyramid,  equaling  the  height  of  that  below  (sur- 
rounded by  the  colonnade.)  The  finial  was  a quadriga,  making  the  total  height 
140  feet,  whence  that  of  the  basement  and  quadriga  being  deducted,  would 
leave  80  or  90  for  the  order  and  pyramid  or  about  40  for  the  order  alone,  whose 
columns,  if  Ionic,  would  be  about  4 feet  in  diameter.  The  annexed  arrangement 

shows  how  36  of  them,  with  a systyle 
spacing,  could  serve  to  cover  the  whole 
plan,  by  means  of  trabeated  domes , (like 
that  of  the  beautiful  tomb  at  Mylassa,) 
resting  outwardly  on  the  columns,  and 
inwardly  on  the  sides  of  the  pyramid. 
A hexastyle  portico.  63  feet  wide,  would 
appear  on  each  flank,  and  a tetrastyle 
one  (with  a pediment)  on  each  front  ; 
and  no  beam  would  be  required  of  greater 
span  than  11  feet,  that  of  the  architraves 
being  only  8 feet.  A late  restoration 
which  challenges  the  “production  of  a 
better”  has  nearly  all  its  architraves  of 
17  feet  span,  and  forming  the  only  base 
to  a pyramid  extending  over  the  whole 
plan,  (which  has  about  double  the  area 
of  that  here  given,)  the  most  massive  of 
all  architectural  forms  being  thus  honied 
in  the  air  on  columns,  and  these  of  the 
Corinthian  order! 


looking  down.  looking  ttp 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


199 


The  immense  temple  of  Ephesus,  and  others,  hardly  infe- 
rior, in  most  of  the  cities  of  that  country,  were  Ionic  ; but 
the  European  Greeks,  with  their  general  accuracy  of  taste, 
confined  this  order  to  their  smallest  works,  in  which,  sub- 
limity being  unattainable,  elegance  was  substituted  ; and 
perceiving  that  the  character  of  their  national  style  would 
be  entirely  lost,  without  any  equivalent,  when  the  columns 
were  reduced  in  thickness  to  less  than  a sixth  of  their 
height,  ("the  proportion  of  a lion’s  leg,)  they  wisely  rejected 
it  in  such  buildings. 

Of  the  exquisite  curvilinear  forms  invented  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  Ionic  order,  none  is  more  general,  and  yet  less 
understood,  than  that  called  by  them  anthemion , and  by  us, 
the  honeysuckle,  though  it  has  not  the  slightest  resemblance 
to  that  plant  or  any  other,  being  no  representation  of  any 
thing  in  nature,  but  simply  the  necessary  result  of  the  com- 
plete and  systematic  attempt  to  combine  unity  and  variety 
by  the  principle  of  gradation.  First,  a “line  of  beauty” 
wras  formed, — a line  of  contrary  flexure,  of  our  fifth  class, — 
not  of  contrasted  but  gradated  contrary  flexure.  On  the 
principles  explained  in  Chap.  II.,  the  unity  and  variety  were 
further  augmented  by  a gradated  increase  of  breadth  from 
one  end  of  this  line  to  the  other  ; then  a series  of  such  lines 
were  combined,  not  all  alike,  but  gradated  from  the  longest 
to  the  shortest.  But  as  this  did  not  produce  a symmetrical 
or  uniform  figure,  the  uniformity  of  halves  was  obtained  by 
joining  two  such  series  of  lines  in  reversed  positions  : tints 
we  have  one  of  the  tuft-like  forms  that  compose  the  pattern. 
At  first  these  tufts  wTou'ld  be  made  all  alike,  but  they  would 
soon  discover  the  graceful  variety  attained  by  using  two 
such  forms  alternately,  differing  chiefly  in  their  number  of 
lines,  but  both  composed  in  the  above  manner.  As  the 
lines,  however,  composing  these  figures  are  not  long  enough 
to  afford  an  extensive  display  of  gradated  curvature,  such  as 
gives  to  spirals  their  exquisite  grace,  the  artists  could  not 
forego  the  introduction  of  longer  lines,  in  which  the  curva- 


200 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


tiire  (evanescent  at  their  middle)  increases  up  to  each  ex- 
tremity so  as  to  form  curls  or  volutes  ; and  these,  associated 
with  the  above  forms,  complete  the  anthmion  in  all  its 
varieties.* 


As  a systematic  attempt  to  embody  as  perfectly  as  possi- 
ble, in  a beamed  building,  the  one  principle  of  contrast , would 
lead  any  designers  to  the  Doric  order  and  nothing  else  ; so 
the  attempt,  in  an  ornament,  to  embody  gradation  alone  and 
unmixed,  must  lead  to  this  precise  combination  of  forms. 
The  tracing  of  the  solutions  is  easy  after  the  problems  have 
been  solved.  We  can  all  make  the  egg  stand,  after  Co- 
lumbus. 

The  introduction  of  the  anthemion  into  the  Doric  order 
was,  in  itself,  a great  abuse,  but  was  palliated  by  certain 
changes  made  to  diminish  gradation  and  increase  contrast, 
such  as  the  omission  of  contrary  flexure  in  the  curves,  (i.  e.t 
reducing  them  from  the  fifth  class  to  the  third, ) the  'termi- 
nating them  by  angular  instead  of  rounded  ends,  and  the 
enclosing  of  each  set  of  curves  in  the  Gothic-arch-shaped 
border,  crossing  and  violently  contrasting  with  their  direc- 
tion. An  ornament  more  fit  for  this  order  (but  perhaps 
carrying  the  rectangular  principle  to  excess)  was  that  called 
the,  fret  r which,  it  should  be  observed,  was,  anciently,  never 
more  than  a painted  form.  It  was  left  for  the  age  and 
country  of  Soane  to  perpetuate  such  a thing  in  carved 
marble,  f 

* Since  arriving  at  this  conclusion,  I find  Hay,  in  his  “ Essay  on  Form,” 
has  explained  this  ornament  on  similar  principles,  and  rejected  the  notion  that 
at  is  imitative. 

f We  must  here  warn  the  reader  against  a remarkable  error  of  Ruskin.  The 
value  of  ornaments  in  architecture  depends  not  in  the  slightest,  dieffrm  on  the 
■manual  labor  they  contain.  If  it  did,  the  finest  ornaments  ever  executed  would 
he  the  :-t<>ne  chains  that  hang  before  certain  Indian  rock-teraples.  But  the  value 
of  ornaments  depends  wholly  ©n  the  amount  of  thought,  of  mental  lafi&r,  em- 
bodied ; and  whether  this  be  great  or  small,  it  is  essential  that  it  he  not  excee£e-$ 


Doric  fr<* 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


201 


What  Sir  J.  Reynolds  observes  of  his  art,  is  applicable  to 
every  other. — “ Such  as  suppose  that  the  great  style  might 
happily  be  blended  with  the  ornamental, — that  the  simple, 
grave,  and  majestic  dignity  of  Raffaelle,  could  unite  with 
the  glow  and  bustle  of  a Paolo  or  a Tintoret, — are  totally 
mistaken.  The  principles  by  which  each  is  attained,  are  so 
contrary  to  each  other,  that  they  seem  in  my  opinion  incom- 
patible, and  as  impossible  to  exist  together,  as  that  in  the 
mind,  the  most  sublime  ideas  and  the  lowest  sensuality 
should  at  the  same  time  be  united.”-— f Discourse  iv.)  And 
he  also  remarks,  “ Some  excellences  bear  to  be  united,  and 
are  improved  by  union  ; others  are  of  a discordant  nature, 
and  the  attempt  to  join  them  only  produces  a harsh  jarring 
of  incongruous  principles.  The  attempt  to  unite  contrary . 
excellences  (of  form  for  instance)  in  a single  figure,  can 
never  escape  degenerating  into  the  monstrous,  but  by  sink- 
ing into  the  insipid  ; by  taking  away  its  marked  character, 
and  weakening  its  expression.” — {Disc,  v.)  Such  was  the 
attempt  to  produce  a Doric  ornament  (a  contradiction  in 
terms)  ; and  the  result,  the  rectangular  fret,  may  well  be 
considered  (with  all  its  varieties)  the  most  monotonous  and 
insipid  thing  ever  used  as  an  ornament  by  the  ancients. 

If  we  extend  the  term  “ ornament”  to  the  glorious  sculp- 
tures that  formed  a necessary  part  of  the  Doric  order,  that 
filled  its  cell-frieze  (in  low  relief,)  its  metopes,  (in  higher,) 
and  its  pediments,  (in  detached  statuary,)  then  we  may  well 
consider  it  by  far  the  most  ornate  (or  rather  richest)  order 
or  style  ever  executed.  The  invention  of  a fit  substitute  for 
these,  i.  e.,  one  that  shall  produce  the  same  architectural 

bv  the  manual  labor,  for  then  the  latter  will  appear  thrown  away.  The  Boric  fret 
contains  thought,  but  not  enough  to  render  it  wmrth  carving,  perhaps  hardly 
worth  careful  painting.  But  the  Boric  column  and  entablature  contain  such  un- 
explored volumes  of  thought,  that  no  material  or  finish  is  too  fine  for  them. 
Though  executed  in  polished  porphyry,  the  head-work  would  outshine  the  handi- 
work. 

It  is  far  better  that  the  thought  be  inadequately  expressed,  that  the  workman- 
ship be  not  worthy  of  it,  (as  in  foliage  of  edgelesft  cas1,  iron,  for  instance,)  than 
that  the  design  be  unworthy  of  the  manual  labor,  as  in  Soane’s  carved  frets. 


202 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


effect,  and  harmonize  with  the  rest  of  the  composition,  is  the 
main  problem  to  be  solved  in  the  adaptation  of  this  grand 
style  to  those  few  modern  purposes  in  which  it  may  and 
ought  to  be  employed.* 

The  Corinthian  order,  with  all  its  elegance,  indicates  the 
approach,  if  not  the  commencement,  of  decline  in  Grecian 
art  : if  not  in  architecture,  at  least  in  sculpture,  of  which 
this  order  did  not  absolutely  require  any.  Carving  had 
usurped  its  place,  doubtlessly  because  the  sculptors  were  no 
longer  capable  of  executing  those  wonders,  by  the  side  of 
which  all  later  sculpture  would  have  seemed  barbarous. 

In  the  decline  of  taste,  in  all  countries  and  in  all  arts 
alike,  every  thing  is  ornament,  if  not  fritter,  and  no  beauty 
is  seen  in  the  pure  noble  breadth  and  simplicity  of  the  earlier 
productions.  The  Parthenon  itself  could  not  spurn  from  its 
eternal  surfaces  the  brush  that  found  them  a convenient  field 
for  the  display  of  its  ephemeral  fancies.  First,  the  few 
mouldings  were  covered  with  forms  imitative  of  the  cut 
mouldings  of  the  delicate  orders  ; from  narrower  surfaces, 

* Convinced  that  Greek  architecture  (being  founded  on  nature  and  truth)  can 
never  lose  its  influence,  never  cease  to  be  used  (be  it  ever  so  useless,)  nor  cease  to 
be  practised  (be  it  ever  so  impracticable,)  we  must  find  it  a matter  of  some  im- 
portance how  it  shall  be  imi+ated,  whether  used  or  abused,  applied  or  misapplied, 
A few  words  on  the  more  obvious  and  gross  failures  of  our  imitation,  may  not  be 
here  misplaced  ; especially  regarding  the  substitute  necessary  for  the  Doric  me- 
topes and^ediment-sculpture.  In  interiors  and  on  northern  fronts,  I can  see  no 
objection  to  painting  or  inlaying,  in  the  style  of  the  ancient  vases,  the  figures 
lighter  than  the  ground,  and  varied  by  lines  or  drapery-folds,  but  with  no  attempt 
at  deceptive  shadowing.  In  fronts  receiving  the  sun,  however,  this  will  not  an- 
swer ; great  relief  and  roughness  are  there  requisite  to  break  up  the  otherwise 
straight  shadow  of  the  cornice.  Where  the  figures  are  not  phonetic,  but  mere 
patterns,  it  will  be  needful  for  severity  of  expression  that  they  be  of  the  second 
cla.-s,  i.  e , chiefly  composed  of  straight  lines,  but  diagonal  ones  (in  the  metopes, 
to  avo  d confusion  with  the  surrounding  lines,  and  in  the  pediment,  to  avoid  a 
graver  style  of  form  than  that  of  the  member  itself.)  Iron  gratings,  of  large  and 
simple,  but  carefully  studied  and  varied  patterns,  might  be  placed  before  a dark 
tympanum  and  metopes  (the  latter  much  more  recessed  than  anciently,  as  every 
recess  should  b , to  suit  this  climate)  ; and  to  procure  those  masses  of  light  in 
pleasing  forms,  necessary  for  the  due  effect  at  a distance,  polygonal  or  star-like 
portions  of  these  gratings  [one  in  each  metope  and  three  or  five  in  the  pediment] 
might  be  filled  up,  not  with  a flat  surface,  but  with  Several  planes  forming  a pyra- 
midal or  gem-like  variety  of  surface,  giving  business  and  play  of  light  and  shade, 
without  deviating  from  rectilinear  form 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


203 


they  advanced  to  broader,  till  even  the  abacus  was  made  a 
pattern-block.  When  the  noble  Dorian  works  began  to  be 
thus  desecrated  is  uncertain,  but  probably  not  till  a late 
date,  as  no  Greek  or  even  Roman  writer  makes  the  slightest 
allusion  to  the  practice.  On  the  contrary,  the  constant  use 
of  the  term  white  stone  (or  marble)  in  their  descriptions  of 
buildings  shows  that  a value  was  placed  on  that  whiteness,  . 
which  alone  could  render  (even  under  a Grecian  sun)  some 
of  the  delicate  adjustments  of  light  and  shade  visible.  The 
low  relief  of  the  cell-frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  perhaps  ren- 
dered a colored  ground  necessary,  even  to  understand  it,  in 
its  dark  situation,  just  under  the  ceiling  of  the  colonnade  ; 
and  probably  the  metopes  and  pediment  sculptures,  though 
not  requiring  such  a contrivance  for  relief,  had  it  at  an  early 
date  ; not  originally , or  the  tympanum  would  have  been 
built  of  a deep-colored  stone  (as  that  from  Eleusis,  used  for 
relieving  the  metal  sculpture  of  Ionic  friezes, ) for  the  taste 
of  that  day  avoided  paint  wherever  variety  of  color  could  be 
given  by  different  materials. 

If  there  were  any  coloring  on  the  Doric  temples  in  times 
of  Doric  taste,  it  must  have  been  confined  to  a few  members, 
and  intended  to  enhance  the  general  monotony,  just  as  a few 
cases  of  curvature  and  variety  in  form  enhanced  the  general 
rectangularity.  That  monotony  of  color  is  essential  to  the 
grand  style,  we  may  learn  from  all  the  works  of  nature  in 
this  style  ; — grand  animals  ; grand  vegetables  ; rocks  ; but 
especially  mountains  ; for  in  these,  if  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion, there  is  a sort  of  utilitarian  necessity  for  variety  of 
color  ; and  yet  as  soomas  we  retire  to  the  distance  requisite 
to  see  the  whole,  or  a portion  large  enough  to  be  grand,  the 
atmosphere  interposes  its  blue  veil,  and  reduces  the  whole  to 
sameness..  What  can  more  distinctly  show  that  Nature  will 
not  suffer  polychromy  in  her  Doric  works  ?* 

* What  the  air  does  here,  time  often  does  for  works  of  architecture.  In  a great 
and  ancient  building  whose  poly  chromic  dec* -rations  have  been  sobered  down  by 
ages  of  neglect,  till  hardly  distinguishable,  a singular  majesty  is  acquired  from  this 
circumstance,  and  not  from  the  polychromy  itself.  Not  only  the  venerable  age, 


HISTORY  AM)  RUDIMEXTS 


m 

It  is  possible  that  some  of  these  temples,  when  composed 
of  a coarse  material,  might  have  had  the  whole  surfaces 
finished  with  some  hind  of  stucco,  paint,  or  varnish  ; and  if 
the  profiles  were  so  adjusted  as  to  give  forcible  shadows,  and 
no  nicety  requiring  whiteness  for  its  exhibition,  a deep, 
Intense,  and  uncommon  color  (red,  for  instance,)  might  per- 
haps harmonize  with  the  severity  of  form  better  than  white- 
ness. 

As  for  the  painted  ornaments  on  the  Parthenon,  if  they 
had  been  contemplated  in  the  design,  they  would  certainly 
have  been  carved,  or  (if  flatness  were  wanted)  inlaid,  and 
not  executed  in  so  mean  a manner,  by  those  who  rejected 
marble  and  chose  ivory,  for  the  statue  within,  because  though 
less  beautiful  and  durable , it  was  more  cosily . 

It  should  be  remarked,  that  the  unparalled  excellence  of 
the  sculptures  of  this  building  has  led  to  the  habit  of  consider- 
ing it  the  perfection  of  Doric  architecture  also,  which  is  by 
no  means  so  certain.  Being  built  after  the  introduction  of 
the  Ionic,  and  nearly  contemporary  with  its  neighbor  the 
Erechtheum,  the  richest  example  of  that  order,  it  certainly 
displays  many  approaches  to  Ionicism.  The  older  examples 
have,  besides  their  simplicity,  decidedly  more  grace,  particu- 
larly in  the  capital  ; nor  can  any  compete  in  this  respect 
with  that  most  archaic  form,  of  unknown  antiquity,  which 
crowns  the  rock  of  Corinth,  with  its  columns  of  a single 
stone,  only  four  diameters  high,  and  yet  (what  wondrous 
art  !)  not  only  not  clumsy,  but  singularly  graceful.  The 
loss  of  their  entablature  is  one  of  the  greatest  losses  archi- 
tecture has  to  mourn. 

As  the  Homeric  poems  have  triumphantly  refuted  the  at- 
tempts to  regard  them,  as  compilations,  so  is  there  in  the 
Doric  order,  and  especially  in  its  oldest  examples,  that  per- 

but  the  dimensions,  are  apparently  increased  by  the  dim  and  misty  effect  that 
makes  everything  look  more  distant  than  it  is.  Cicognara  and  Zanotto  attribute 
to  this  co, use  great  part  of  the  sublimity  of  the  interior  of  St.  Mark  s’  at  Venice  ; 
“an  effect,”  says  the  former,  “moot  rare  to  be  obtained  in  edifices  overloaded 
with  so  many  rich  ornaments.1’ 


OS'  ARCHITECTURE. 


205 


feet  consistency  and  unity  of  idea  that  proclaims  it  to  be,  in 
all  essential  points,  the  production  of  one  mind.  Like  other 
orders  and  styles,  it  must  doubtless  have  received  improve- 
ments from  many  hands  ; but  unlike  them,  or  rather  in  afar 
greater  degree  than  any  of  them,  does  it  exhibit  the  marked 
predominance  of  one  genius  ; and  on  this  point  we  are  con- 
strained to  receive  the  tradition  of  Yitruvius,  that  whatever 
number  may  have  aided  in  its  progress,  it  had  one  inventor , 
the  greatest  mind  that  has  ever  been  directed  to  architecture. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

Application  of  the  same  Principles  to  Compressile  Building,  by  the 
Mediceval  Architects . 

The  Greek  architecture,  having  in  itself  few  elements  of 
change  or  corruption,  survived  in  tolerable  purity  for  a longer 
period  than  any  other  known  system,  and  even  in  its  latest 
works  (few  of  which,  however,  were  durable  enough  to  remain 
to  us)  it  escaped  one  fault,  that  seems  to  have  had  a great 
share  in  breaking  up  all  other  styles,  (the  Egyptian,  Roman, 
Hindoo,  Arabian,  and  Gothic,  for  instance,)  viz.,  the  use,  as 
ornaments,  of  miniature  models  of  the  principal  features  ; — 
the  puerility  that  led,  in  Egypt,  to  making  a capital  like  a 
little  house  or  temple  ; at  Rome  and  Baalbec,  to  enclosing 
a niche  with  small  columns  and  a pediment  ; in  Gothic 
England,  to  applying  buttressets  and  pinna  cl  ets  without  num- 
ber ; in  India,  to  a similar  crowd  of  modeled  colonnades, 
verandahs,  and  domes  ; and  in  Moslem  lands,  to  shelves  and 
cupboards  like  cloisters,  and  to  that  multiplication  of  little 
sham  vaultings  that  has  obtained  the  name  of  the  ' stalactite 
ceiling ; — the  object  of  all  being  to  get  false  magnitude  by 
diminishing  the  scale  ; an  artifice  that  never  succeeds  except 
on  paper , on  which  these  things  often  look  vast  and  sublime, 
but  never  in  reality.  The  Greek  system  escaped  all  this  ; but 
one  change,  the  Introduction  of  oblique  pressure,  destroyed  it. 

18 


206 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


The  Romans  (as  the  reader  should  be  aware)  succeeded 
in  imitating  no  order  but  the  Corinthian,  and  this  only  when 
they  adhered  strictly  (at  least  externally)  to  Greek  construc- 
tion as  well  as  decoration,  as  in  the  Pantheon  portico,  the 
temples  of  Nismes  and  Baalbec.  The  columns  and  entabla- 
tures stuck  on  the  face  of  an  arcade,  as  in  the  Colosseum, 
are  a constructive  lie,  but  not,  as  some  suppose,  a huge  orna- 
ment. The  lie  consists  in  their  appearing  a mere  ornament, 
while  they  are  really  indispensable  to  stability ; for  these 
columns  are  really  the  buttresses  or  props  of  the  internal 
vaulted  ceiling,  and  they  would  have  to  stand  out  obliquely 
and  form  apparent  props,  were  it  not  for  their  entablature, 
which  (often  itself  a piece  of  disguised  arch  construction,  in 
order  to  throw  all  its  weight  on  the  columns,)  serves  the 
purpose  of  the  Gothic  pinnacle,  to  steady  the  column  below, 
against  the  side-thrust ; by  combining  its  vertical  pressure 
with  the  oblique  thrust,  to  produce  a resultant  more  nearly 
vertical,  and  capable  of  being  confined  within  the  foot  of  a 
vertically  placed  column.*  But  the  column  is  false,  because 
it  appears  made  to  sustain  the  vertical  pressure  alone. 
Being  a prop,  it  should  have  appeared  one  ; but  this  was 
never  attempted  till  the  thirteenth  century.  Till  then, 
propping,  though  a sound  principle  in  building,  was  con- 
sidered an  improper  one  to  appear  in  architecture  ; and  this 
one  disguise  kept  the  art  for  fifteen  centuries  in  a continually 
deepening  degradation.")"  The  arch  was  introduced  by  the 
Etruscans  or  Romans  ; but  its  necessary  attendant,  the  prop, 
was  strugged  against  for  fifteen  centuries  before  architects 
would  admit  it  without  a mask. 

During  this  long  period  of  false  art,  mixed  construction  was 


* Thus,  these  attached  columns  and  entablatures  are  (as  Pugin  expresses  a prin- 
ciple of  all  true  architecture)  not  constructed  decoration , but  decorated  construc- 
tion. He  regards  it  as  a peculiarly  Gothic  principle,  which  is  a mistake  ; it  is  not 
more  a principle  in  good  Gothic  than  in  all  good  architecture,  and  was,  perhaps, 
on  the  whole,  (taking  all  the  works  of  a style  together,)  less  attended  to  in  the 
Gothic  than  in  an}*-  other  style,  before  the  introduction  of  sham  building. 

t What,  then,  can  be  expected  at  present,  when  all  architecture  ik  disguise,  con- 
cealment. and  deception? 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


20? 


universally  employed  (as  at  present) ; the  three  principles  of 
the  beam,  arch,  and  truss,  being  indiscriminately  used, — the 
first,  in  both  stone  and  wood  coverings  of  small  span, — the 
second,  in  the  generality  of  stone  coverings, — and  the  last  in 
those  of  timber,  of  which  only  the  roofs  or  ceilings  were  (at 
least  after  the  last  great  Roman  works,  in  the  reigns  of  Con- 
stantine and  Diocletian)  entirely  composed.  One  conse- 
quence of  this  was,  that  the  long  dark  age  of  architecture 
produced  no  durable  works  ; so  that  we  hardly  have  any 
examples  (or  not  enough  to  show  us  the  general  manner)  of 
more  than  its  first  two  or  three,  and  last  two  or  three  cen- 
turies. The  style  of  the  former  is  called  Roman  ; of  the 
latter,  Romanesque,  or  (in  this  country)  Saxon  and  Norman, 
and  by  various  local  names  in  other  countries.  The  dura- 
bility of  the  Roman  works  arose  from  the  national  energy  of 
character,  and  from  Greek  principles  of  construction  being 
retained  in  porticoes,  &c.  The  durability  of  the  Romanesque 
arose  from  a general  return  to  more  substantial  construction 
after  the  year  1000,  which  was  expected  to  terminate  the 
world  ; and  also  from  the  desire  (caused  by  the  frequent 
destruction  of  the  open-roofed  churches  by  fire)  to  render 
the  whole,  or  as  much  as  possible,  of  the  fabric  fire-proof,  by 
vaulted  ceilings  below  the  timber  roofing.  At  first  they 
only  covered  the  narrower  parts  and  aisles*  in  this  manner, 
but  gradually  extended  it  to  the  main  avenue  or  nave.  This 
was  first  done  in  Germany,  and  in  the  early  examples  we  also 
find  the  first  change  from  the  round  to  the  pointed  arch, — 
generally,  but  inaccurately,  considered  the  grand  distinction 
between  the  Romanesque  and  the  Gothic  styles.  The  change 
doubtless  arose  from  ignorance  and  timidity  of  construction; 
but  it  had  a most  important  artistic  effect,  by  introducing 
an  angle  into  the  arch,  and  thereby  bringing  it  back  almost 
into  a graver  class  of  form  than  the  third,  and  rendering  it 
more  fit  for  main  structural  features.  The  pointed-arch 


* As  ambiguity  sometimes  ari-es  from  the  uncertain  meaning  of  this  word  aisle , 
(derivable  either  from  aile.  or  allee.)  we  shall  use  it  only  in  -the  former  sense,  as 
applying  only  to  the  lateral  alleys  of.a  building, 


208 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


buildings,  though  not  attaining  (for  no  arched  building  ever 
can  attain)  the  grandeur  of  the  rectangular  archless  styles, 
yet  have  a higher  degree  of  gravity  and  severity  than  the 
light  sweep  of  the  Italian  round-arching  can  ever  attain. 
Compare  the  interiors  of  the  Lady-chapel  at  Southwark  and 
the  vestibule  of  Somerset  House,  and  remember  that  the 
latter  is  by  far  the  more  massive.* 

It  is  common  to  date  the  great  transition,  from  the  first 
appearance  of  a pointed  arch,  to  the  complete  disappearance 
of  the  last  round  one.  But  in  truth  it  extends  from  the 
revival  of  vaulting,  (disused  since  the  Homan  times)  to  the 
universal  use  of  that  covering,  i.  e.,  to  the  disappearance  of 
the  last  lintel,  or  the  last  unvaulted  space.  All  Romanesque 
buildings  with  vaulting  are  an  approach  towards  Gothicity  ; 
and  the  building  that  contains  a lintel,  however,  short,  is  not 
completely  Gothic.  Even  at  Salisbury  there  are  a few  lin- 
tels across  the  narrow  galleries  and  passages.  In  this  con- 
tinued progress,  the  change  from  round  to  pointed  is  only 
one  step,  and  a far  less  important,  and  less  exactly  definable 
step  than  another  we  could  name,  which  is  the  unmasking  of 
the  buttress.  It  is  this  that  makes  the  grand  restoration 
from  falsehood  to  truth.  It  is  this  that  distinguishes  the 
beautiful  church  of  Marburg  in  Hesse,  and  the  more  glorious 
one  of  Salisbury,  (begun  a few  years  earlier,  in  1219,)  from 
all  previous  buildings,  and  stamps  them  as  the  first  complete 
developments  of  the  new  system.  The  buttresses  that  prop 
their  vaulting  appear  without  disguise. 

Vaulting,  then,  being  the  all-pervading  motive — the  final 
cause  of  Gothic  architecture, f that  to  which  all  its  mem- 
bers subserve,  for  which  everything  else  is  contrived,  and 

* That  is,  it  represents  a more  massive  construction.  In  considering  modern 
English  architectural  works,  it  must  never  he  forgotten  that  they  differ  from  all 
others  in  this  respect.  Foreign  architecture  (and  English  before  the  fall  of  Gothi- 
city) consists  ?n  fine  "building . But  English  architecture  since  that  period  con- 
sists in  the  i epresentaUon  of  fine  building,  and  its  works  must  (like  theatrical 
scenery)  be  criticised  pot  as  what  they  are,  but  as  what  they  rep  esent. 

f This  was  first  shown,  we  believe,  by  Ware,  in  his  admirable  Tract  on 
Vaults.” 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


209 


without  which  the  whole  apparatus  would  be  aimless  and  un- 
meaning— it  will  be  necessary  here,  first  to  take  a rapid  glance 
at  that  art,  then  at  the  modifications  it  introduced  in  the  gen- 
eral design,  and  lastly  in  the  subservient  parts  of  the  building. 

I.  Of  arch  or  vault  work  as  the,  fundamental  'principle  of 
the  Gothic  system. 

Whether  any  people  before  the  Romans  were  in  the  habit 
of  building  arches  and  vaults,  is  a question  having  no  bearing 
on  our  present  subject  ; but  we  must  observe  that  the  dome > 
is  a simpler  principle  of  construction  than  the  arch — is  found 
in  the  works  of  animals  (which  the  arch  is  not),  and  has 
been  employed  by  many  nations  who  could  not  (or  did  not) 
build  arches,  as  the  ancient  Mexicans  and  the  present  Esqui- 
maux. The  ancient  Romans,  however,  (who  constructed 
with  brick  the  largest  domes  even  now  in  existence),  not 
only  used  this  kind  of  covering,  which  rests  on  all  sides  of  the 
space  to  be  covered,  but  also  the  simple  or  wagon-head  vault, 
which  rests  on  only  two  sides  of  the  covered  rectangle,  leaving 
the  other  two  free  from  all  pressure.  But  further  than  this, 
they  were  the  inventors  of  that  highly  ingenious  contrivance, 
the  cross-vault , which  exerts  its  whole  pressure  solely  on  the 
angles  of  the  apartment,  leaving  all  the  sides  free.  Its  origin 
may  be  thus  explained  : suppose  a simply  vaulted  passage 
had  to  be  continued  across  another  exactly  similar  passage, 
lying  at  right  angles  to  its  course,  and  it  was  required  to 
leave  both  corridors  perfectly  free.  First,  suppose  them  to 
interpenetrate  each  other,  without  omitting  any  part  of 
either  ; the  square  of  intersection  will  then  be  completely 
enclosed  by  four  walls,  and  covered  by  a double  ceiling,  for 
each  vault  by  itself  covers  this  space  : every  point,  there- 
fore, in  this  square  is  doubly  covered,  except  the  points 
situate  along  the  two  diagonals  of  the  plan,  for  vertically 
over  these  two  lines  do  the  two  vaults  interpenetrate  each 
other.  If  we  confine  our  attention  to  the  lower  of  the  two 
ceilings  thus  formed,  we  shall  find  it  to  be  a square  dome, 


210 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


for  a dome  may  be  erected  on  a square  or  any  other  form  of 
base,  and  its  property  is  always  to  rest  equally  on  the  whole 
enclosure  : now  the  four  ridges,  or  (to  borrow  an  expression 
from  carpentry)  the  hips  of  this  square  dome,  are  the  com- 
mon intersection-lines  of  the  two  vaults,  and  are  evidently 
simple  elliptic  curves  in  vertical  planes  : consequently  these 
two  semi-ellipses  have  the  property  of  arches,  and  can  sup- 
port not  only  themselves,  but  Square  cross -vault,  resting  upon  and 
the  whole  of  the  upper  ceiling. 


against  the  angles  only  of  its  base. 


Hence  the  lower  ceiling  or 
square  dome  may  be  entirely 
removed,  as  well  as  the  four 
walls  on  which  it  rests,  leaving 
both  passages  open,  and  the^ 
cross-way  completely  covered 
by  a ceiling  that  rests  solely  on 
the  four  angles  : it  is  even  inde- 
pendent of  the  vaults  over  the 
four  arms  of  the  cross,  which 
may  be  entirely  removed,  leav- 
ing the  cross-vault  to  be  con- 
fined solely  by  four  definite 
pressures  applied  diagonally  to 
its  four  angles. 

The  same  elliptic  lines  which  in  the  square  dome  formed 
external  ridges,  here  form  internal  ridges,  called  groins. 

The  beauty  and  advantages  of  this  kind  of  vaulting  led 
the  Romans  to  use  it,  not  only  over  a cross-way,  where  it 
was  necessary,  but  also  over  all  corridors  and  long  apart- 
ments, by  dividing  them  into  a series  of  squares,  each  covered 
by  a cross-vault,  thus  throwing  the  whole  pressure  of  the 
vaulting  on  the  points  of  division  between  these  square  com- 
partments, and  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  walls  free  for 
openings,  or  to  be  constructed  ever  so  slightly,  or  even 
omitted  altogether.  The  boldness  of  their  constructions  of 
this  kind  has  never  been  equaled.  There  is  evidence  that 


Square  dome,  resting  v/pon  and  against 
the  whole  enclosure  of  its  base. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


211 


the  Temple  of  Peace,  now  in  ruins,  had  its  nave  covered  by 
cross-vaults  83  feet  wide,  so  that  the  groins  on  which  the 
whole  rested  had  a span  of  83X^2  = 111  feet ; and  an  apart- 
ment in  the  baths  of  Diocletian,  still  in  use  as  a church,  has 
a similar  ceiling  of  about  86  feet  in  diagonal  span  still 
remaining,  although  it  is  formed  on  an  unsound  principle. 
The  compartments  are  not  square,  but  rather  wider  in  one 
direction  than  the  other.  Now  in  this  case,  either  one  or  both 
of  the  crossing  vaults  ought  to  have  been  elliptical , so  that 
both,  notwithstanding  their  unequal  spans,  might  have  their 
springings  at  the  same  level,  and  their  crowns  also  at  the 
same  level.  The  groins  would  then  have  been  confined  to 
vertical  planes  over  the  two  diagonals  of  the  compartment. 
But,  in  fact,  both  vaults  are  made  semi-circular,  and  their 
crowns  being  at  the  same  level,  their  springings  are  not  at 
the  same  level.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  intersection 
lines  or  groins  are  lines  of  double  curvature,  and  not  being 
in  .vertical  planes,  are  not  therefore  true  arches,  and  would 
not  be  able  to  support  themselves,  were  it  not  for  the  immense 
and  wasteful  thickness  of  the  vaulting,  containing  several 
times  more  material  than  is  necessary.  Moreover,  curves  of 
double  curvature  are  invariably  displeasing  in  architecture, 
for  the  eye  cannot  readily  understand  them. 

With  the  decline  of  Itoman  power,  this  art  of  vaulting 
was  lost,  and  for  centuries  the  basilicas  of  Italy  and  the 
churches  of  all  Homan  Christendom  remained  with  nothing 
but  timber  roofs.  The  Greeks,  however,  retained  (or  else 
re-invented)  another  mode  of  vaulting  possessing  many  of 
the  advantages  of  groining,  but  not  all  of  them.  This 
system  depended  on  two  simple  geometrical  principles  : 1st, 
that  every  section  of  a sphere  by  a plane  is  circular  ; and 
2dly,  that  every  intersection  of  two  spheres  is  a plane  curve, 
and  therefore  circular.  The  Greek  vaulting,  then,  consists 
wholly  of  spherical  surfaces,  as  the  Boman  consisted  wholly 
of  cylindrical  ones.  A hemispherical  dome  may  be  supposed, 
whose  base  circumscribes  the  plan  of  any  apartment  or  com- 


212 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


partment,  square,  rectangular,  triangular,  or  polygonal.  Now 
imagine  the  sides  of  this  plan  continued  upwards,  as  vertical 
planes,  till  they  meet  the  hemispheric  surface.  This  meeting- 
line must  in  every  case  be  a semi-circle,  and  may  therefore  be 
made  an  open  arch  ; and  the  portions  of  the  dome  thus  cut 
off  from  every  side  of  its  base  may  be  omitted  altogether, 
provided  their  office  as  buttresses  to  the  remaining  portion 
above  be  replaced  by  the  pressure  of  some  other  vault,  which 
may  be  of  any  kind,  if  it  be  applied  against  the  semi-circular 
arch.  Thus  no  walls  are  required  on  the  sides  of  the  sup- 
posed compart- 
ment, all  the 
weight  of  the 
pendentive,  dome 
(as  it  is  called) 
being  thrown  on 
the  angles  of  its 
plan.  Thus  this 
dome  serves  for 
covering  an  open 
cross-way,  and  is 

so  applied  at  Vaulting  of  Sancta  Sophia  : the  dome  over  the  central 
Sancta  Sophia  of  S(luare  resting  wpon  its  angles,  hut  against  its  sides. 

which  the  covered  cross-way,  115  feet  square,  might  well  be 
esteemed,  in  the  barbarous  age  of  its  erection,  a wonder  of 
the  world  ; and  the  same  idea  repeated  without  end, — the 
same  sprouting  of  domes  out  of  domes, — continues  to 
characterize  the  Byzantine  style,  both  in  Greek  churches  and 
Turkish  mosques,  down  to  the  present  day.  They  have  been 
well  described  by  Hope  as  a congeries  of  globes  of  various 
sizes  growing  one  out  of  another. 

This  system  of  vaulting  has  been  adopted  by  two  great 
modern  architects, — by  Sir  C.  Wren  at  St.  Paul’s,  and  by 
Soufflot  at  St.  Genevieve,  Paris  ; by  the  former  with  great 
success,  and  in  both  made  to  harmonize  well  with  the  Roman 
style.  But  observe  the  inferiority  of  this  to  the  Roman 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


213 


cross-vault.  The  latter  is,  as  we  have  seen,  independent  of 
the  four  adjoining  vaults,  over  the  arms  of  the  cross.  But 
the  pendentive  dome  cannot  subsist  without  them  ; for  though 
its  downward  pressure  is  confined  to  the  angles  of  the  plan, 
its  outward  push  is  exerted  against  the  sides, — though  it  rest 
wpon  four  points  only,  it  rests  against  innumerable  points, 
viz.,  against  the  whole  semi-circle  of  each  of  the  main  arches. 
But  the  cross-vault  has  its  whole  pressure, — not  only  its 
weight,  but  its  push, — collected  into  four  definite  resultants 
applied  to  the  angles  only,  so  that  it  might  be  entirely  sup- 
ported by  four  ftying  buttresses,  no  matter  how  slender, 
provided  they  were  placed  in  the  right  directions  to  transmit 
these  four  simple  resultant  pressures,  and  strong  enough  not 
to  be  crushed  by  them. 

At  the  first  dawn  of  Gothic  science,  when  the  numerous 
and  disastrous  fires  among  sacred  edifices  led  to  the  attempt 
(first  perhaps  in  the  Bhine  valley)  to  vault  them  with  stone, 
a mixture  of  the  Roman  and  Eastern  methods  seems  first  to 
to  have  been  tried,  and  some  curious  combinations  of  this 
kind  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  old  churches  of  Cologne  and 
its  neighborhood.  The  superiority  of  the  Roman  system, 
however,  soon  led  to  its  exclusive  adoption,  and  it  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  crypts  and  aisles  of  many  buildings  of  our  own 
country,  as  in  those  of  the  naves  at  Durham  and  Ely  and  the 
transepts  at  Ely  and  Winchester  ; but  in  extending  this  kind 
of  ceiling  to  the  central  avenue,  many  difficulties  arose,  not 
perhaps  so  much  from  the  increased  span  and  height  above 
the  ground,  as  from  the  oblong  form  of  the  compartments, 
(those  of  the  aisles  having  been  square  ;)  for  the  builders 
of  this  age  very  properly  rejected  the  doubly-curved  groins 
of  Diocletian’s  baths,  which  indeed  would  have  been  quite 
impracticable  over  a plan  differing  considerably  from  a square. 
Various  expedients  were  resorted  to,  and  the  only  successful 
one  for  vaulting  the  clerestory  with  round  arches  alone,  was 
by  making  its  comparments  square,  and  letting  each  corres- 
pond to  two  compartments  of  the  side  aisle.  This  is  the  mode 


214 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


adopted  at  the  three  great  Romanesque  cathedrals  of  W orms, 
Mentz,  and  Speyer  (in  the  last  of  which,  the  diagonal  or 
groin  span  is  more  than  60  feet),  and  in  the  two  great  abbeys 
founded  by  William  I.  and  his  Queeu,  at  Caen  ; and  it  seems 
to  have  been  intended,  but  never  executed,  in  the  nave  at 
Durham.  We  have  no  example  however,  in  England,  of  a 
nave  with  round-arched  vaulting,  if  we  except  the  small 
massive  chapel  in  the  White  Tower,  London,  which  is  a 
simple  vault  without  groins,  and  is  not  a dear  story,  but  en- 
closed between  upper  aisles,  so  that  there  is  no  difficulty  as 
regards  its  abutments.  But  the  various  attempts  to  over- 
come these  difficulties  would  hardly  fail  to  lead,  first  to  the 
mixture  of  pointed  vaults  with  round  ones,  as  in  the  Rhenish 
churches,  and  then  to  the  exclusive  use  of  the  pointed  form. 
Without  detailing  the  various  modes  in  which  this  might 
happen,  and  did  happen,  as  appears  from  the  various  interest- 
ing expedients  seen  in  those  buildings,*  we  may  observe  that, 
as  the  chief  practical  difficulties  attached  themselves  to  the 
upper  and  horizontal  portions  of  the  round  vaults,  nothing 
could  be  more  natural  (in  an  age  unfettered  by  pedantic 
admiration  of  classical  precedents)  than  to  get  rid  of  these 
difficult  and  hazardous  parts  of  the  work,  by  beginning  each 
foot  of  the  arch  as  if  it  were  meant  for  an  arch  of  wider 
span,  so  that  the  two  curves  might  meet,  before  attaining  the 
horizontality  which  was  dreaded  in  the  crown  of  the  round 
vaulting. 

The  Romans  had  strengthened  their  vaults  with  simi- 
circularly-arched  ribs,  i.  e.,  portions  thicker  than  the  rest  of 
the  vault,  and  appearing  inwardly  as  flat  bands  projecting 
slightly  from  the  inner  surface,  and  harmonizing  well  with 
the  similar  forms  of  pilasters  in  the  walls  ; but  they  did  not 
place  these  ribs  where  they  were  most  needed,  viz.,  along  the 
elliptic  groins,  which  bear  all  the  rest  of  the  ceiling.  The 
early  Freemasons  took  care  to  strengthen  these  important 
lines,  and  (on  the  same  principle  that  modern  joists  are 


* Whewell’s  ‘ Architectural  Notes  on  German  Churches.’ 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


215 


made  deep  and  narrow ) they  gradually  converted  the  broad, 
shallow  Roman  band  into  a deep  narrow  rib,  by  first  simply 
diminishing  its  width  and  increasing  its  projection  or  depth, 
then  chamfering  the  edges  till  its  section  became  a semi- 
octagon, (as  may  be  seen  in  the  newer  Romanesque  portions 
of  Winchester  transept,  but  not  in  the  older  portions,  which 
are  examples  of  the  Roman  manner,  unaltered.)  They  also 
beaded  the  two  edges  of  the  rib,  and  then  enlarged  these 
beads  till  the  whole  became  a double  roll  with  a mere  fillet 
between  them,  whence  the  transition  is  easy  to  the  deeper 
and  more  variously  moulded  vault-ribs  of  the  Early  and 
Complete  Gothic. 

Rut,  meanwhile,  important  improvements  were  made  in  the 
general  forms  of  the  vaulting,  till  a new  principle,  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Romans,  was  established.  W e should 
observe  that  the  interpenetration  of  two  pointed  vaults  (as 
well  as  of  two  round  ones)  could  only  produce  elliptical 
lines,  or  else  lines  of  double  curvature,  (for  two  cylindrical 
surfaces  can  intersect  in  no  plane  curve  except  an  ellipse,) 
yet  the  early  Gothic  architects  rarely  made  their  groin-ribs 
elliptical,  and  never  deviating  from  a vertical  plane.  These 
ribs  were  usually  simple  pointed  arches  (of  circular  curvature,) 
thrown  diagonally  across  the  space  to  be  groined  ; and  the 
four  arches  over  the  sides  of  this  space  were  equally  simple, 
the  only  care  being  that  all  these  arches  should  have  their 
vertices  at  the  same  level.  The 
shell  of  the  vault,  therefore, 
between  these  ribs  was  no  regular 
geometric  surface,  but  simply  such 
as  might  have  been  formed  by 
laths  laid  across  from  rib  to  rib. 

This  shell  is  often  no.  more  than 
six  inches  thick,  while  Roman  „ A r ^ 

Compartment  of  the  simplest  Gothic 

vaults  of  the  same  span  would  vaulting:**  a a,  groin-ribs;  &&&&&&, 

, -i  ,1  r p . side-ribs  or  arches  bounding  the 

have  been  three  or  tour  teet.  oompartment. 

The  difference  of  principle,  then,  was  that  the  Romans 


216 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


made  their  vault  -surfaces  geometrically  regular,  and  left  the 
groins  to  take  their  chance  ; while  the  early  Freemasons 
made  their  groins  {i.  e.,  ribs)  geometrically  regular,  and  let 
the  intermediate  surf  acts  take  their  chance.  This  was  a vast 
improvement  both  in  construction  and  in  art  ; constructively, 
because  the  groins  are  really  the  supporters  of  the  whole 
work  ; and  artistically,  because  the  eye  takes  cognizance 
of  lines,  not  surfaces  ; and  while  it  is  offended  by  the  double 
curvature  of  the  groins  in  Diocletian’s  baths,  it  scarcely 
detects  the  winding  and  irregular  forms  of  the  Gothic  vault- 
surfaces. 

We  need  hardly  observe  that  these  winding  surfaces  were 
not  formed  of  cut  stone  but  of  stucco,  the  shell  itself  being 
merely  a rubble-work  of  the  lightest* minerals  to  be  had,  or, 
in  this  country,  chalk.*  The  Byzantines,  long  before,  had 
diminished  the  thrust  of  their  domes  by  building  them  of 
pumice-stone,  hollow  bricks,  or  pots  (a  practice  revived  by 
that  excellent  master  of  construction,  Sir  J.  Soane)  ; and  a 
similar  motive  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  material  called  by 
monkish  writers  tophus,  volcanic. 

The  English  masons,  who,  during  the  Romanesque  period, 
had  been  but  timid  followers  of  the  continental  ones,  be- 

* This  economical  mode  of  vaulting  has  now  fallen  into  disuse  ; but  it  was  ap- 
plied with  perfect  success,  in  1819,  in  constructing  a pointed  vault  of  the  simplest 
kind,  over  the  Romanesque  nave  of  Christchurch,  Hants,  the  diagonal  span  being 
about  31  feet.  The  Gothic  masons,  however,  at  least  in  this  country,  seem  to  have 
feared  its  application  to  works  with  a wider  groin- span  than  40  feet  ; for  in  this 
manner  are  constructed  the  ceilings  of  all  the  English  cathedrals,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, York  and  Winchester,  which  have  somewhat  wider  diagonal  spans  than 
the  rest.  The  nave  vaults  of  Winchester  are  entirely  of  cut  stone,  like  those  of 
the  famous  chapels  at  Ely  and  Cambridge,  and  (without  the  frittered  panelling  of 
the  latter)  a^e  not  inferior  in  beauty  and  extent  to  any  work  of  the  kind  ; but  the 
choir  of  the  same  cathedral,  and  the  whole  of  York,  have  sham  vaults  of  wood 
and  plaster, — the  only  instances,  perhaps,  of  Gothic  deception.  At  present,  such 
deceptions  are  the  only  vaultings  made.  Their  uselessness  is  shown  by  the  two 
disastrous  fires  at  York  Minster,  now  said  to  be  ‘ restored,’  that  is,  prepared  for  a 
third  conflagration.  Many  other  cathedral  roofs  have  caught  fire,  but  sustained 
hardly  any  damage,  all  supply  of  air  from  below  being  cut  off  by  the  fire-proof 
ceiling.  The  duomo  at  Milan,  the  abbey  of  Batalha,  and  Redcliffe  church,  Bristol, 
have  fire-proof  roofs  as  well  as  ceilings  ; so  that  the  two  former  are  permanent, 
undecaying  structures,  and  the  latter  would  be  so,  but  for  the  badness  of  its 
6tone. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


217 


came,  during  the  Gothic  period,  their  masters,  and  construc- 
ted many  vaultings  which  for  beauty  and  geometric  perfec- 
tion have  no  parallel  abroad.  Indeed,  the  defect  of  the 
winding  surfaces,  though  carried  to  a great  extent  in  the 
boldest  foreign  vaultings,  seems  to  have  been  hardly  tolera- 
ted in  England, — being  here  confined  to  the  earliest  works, 
as  Salisbury  cathedral.  In  the  next  step,  the  groin-ribs 
were  elliptical,  as  in  the  choir  of  the  Temple  church  ; and 
hence,  when,  in  approaching  the  complete  Gothic,  intermedi- 
ate ribs  were  inserted  between  these  and  the  original  arches 
over  the  sides  of  the  plan  (as  in  the  south  and  west  sides  of 
Westminster  abbey  cloisters,)  these  ribs  also  had  elliptical 
curvatures  different  from  those  of  the  groins,  in  order  that 
the  vault  of  cut  stone  built  upon  them  might  have  a regular 
cylindrical  surface.* 

It  was  well  observed,  however,  by  Ware,  that  “the  Ro- 
mans, the  Byzantine  Greeks,  the  Freemasons,  and  the  mod- 
ern bridge-builders,  successively  tried  the  ellipse  in  architec- 

* In  these  cases,  as  each  pair  of  ribs  that 
meet  at  a point  not  over  the  centre  of  the 
plan,  form  a leaning  arch,  tending  to  fall  to- 
wards the  centre,  this  tendency  has  to  be  re- 
sisted by  a ridge-rib  extending  from  the  cen- 
tre to  the  junction  of  the  last  pair  next  the 
side  of  the  plan  ; but  there  is  no  reason  for 
its  extending  quite  to  the  side  arch,  though  it 
usually  does  so  in  England.  In  the  annexed 
figure,  the  ridge-ribs  are  shown,  as  in  foreign 
examples,  continued  no  farther  than  is  neces- 
sary. In  this  country,  intermediate  ribs  and 
ridge-ribs  appeared  in  the  later  Early  English 
(as  at  Westminster,)  and  became  quite  gene- 
ral in  the  Mid-Gothic  (as  at  Exeter,  Lincoln, 
and  Litchfield;)  but  abroad,  these  features  are 
confined  to  the  declining  Gothic, — not  ap- 
pearing tiU  at  least  a century  later  than  with  Compartment  of  vaulting,  with  ribs 

of  six  different  curvatures  ; viz., 
u9,  groin  ribs,  two  kinds  of  side  ribs,  of 

formerets , one  intermediate  rib  or 
tierceron  on  the  wide  vault,  and  two 
on  the  narrow  vault.  Whichever  of 
these  six  be  made  circular,  the  re- 
maining five  must  be  elliptical,  if  the 
surfaces  are  cylindrical. 

Litchfield  Cathedral. 


19 


218 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ture,  and  rejected  it.’7  The  trial  which  the  Gothic  masons 
gave  it  was  exceedingly  short,  and  has  accordingly  escaped 
the  notice  of  many  inquirers  ; but  however  few  the 
examples  of  Early  English  elliptic  groining  may  be,  we  must 
not  pass  over  so  important  a link  in  the  history  of  the  style. 

The  elliptic  groin-rib  seems  to  have  been  first  tried  a short 
time  previous  to  the  invention  of  the  intermediate  or  tierccron 
ribs,*  and  to  have  been  abandoned  very  soon  after  that  in- 
vention ; and  I think  the  examples  containing  elliptic  curves 
will  be  found  to  present  generally  another  peculiarity,  viz., 
that  the  courses  of  the  masonry  all  run  horizontally  ; while 
in  both  the  preceding  and  succeeding  examples,  they  take, 
between  each  pair  of  ribs,  a position  equally  inclined  to  the 
two  ribs  ; so  that,  meeting  the  ridge-piece  obliquely,  they 
are  received  by  a number  of  saw-like  teeth  cut  in  its  sides. 

Thus  the  abandonment  of  simple  circular  ribs  for  elliptic 
ones  was  an  improvement,  and  the  rejection  of  elliptic  for 
false  elliptic , or  compound  circular  ones,  was  a further  improve- 
ment, as  was  indeed  every  change  in  the  general  form  of 
vaults,  down  to  the  very  latest  examples,  but  it  was  other- 
wise with  their  decoration.  This,  like  the  decoration  of  all 
the  other  features,  attained  its  artistic  .culminating  point 
during  the  fourteenth  century,  and  during  the  prevalence  of 
this  pseudo-elliptic  method  of  rib-drawing. 

In  the  formation  of  the  compound  circular  ribs,  three  con- 
ditions had  to  be  observed, — 1st,  that  the  change  from  one 
radius  to  another  should  be  effected  without  an  angle,  i.  e.} 

* The  French  have  preserved  some  of  the  old  names  of  the  chief  vaulting  fea- 
tures. among  which  tierceron , applied  to  an  intermediate  rib  between  the  groin 
and  the  side  of  the  compartment,  and  formeret  to  the  ribs  forming  or  enclosing 
each  main  compartment,  seem  useful.  In  England,  the  ridge-rib  preceded  the  tier- 
ceron, for  we  find  it  in  Sali -bury  chapter-house  and  the  chancel  and  transept  of 
Westminster  ; while  the  tierceron  appears  only  in  the  nave  of  that  building  In 
both  the^e  examples,  a refined  taste  led  to  making  the  ridge  feature  quite  different 
from  the  ribs,  because,  being  not  a support  but  a pendent  load,  it  required  delicacy 
instead  of  strength,  and  therefore  consists  not  of  mouldings,  but  (at  Salisbury 
■wholly,  and  at  Westminster  partly.)  of  undercut  foliage.  The  later  practice  of  ma- 
king it  represent  a rib  is  a falsehood,  when  there  are  no  tiercerons  or  leaning 
arches  to  be  distended  by  it.  Without  them  it  is  a mere  ornament. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


219 


that  the  two  arcs  should  have  a common  tangent  at  the 
point  where  this  change  occurs  -2ndly,  that  the  feet  of  all 
the  ribs  should  have  the  same  radius,  and,  in  fact,  be  exactly 
similar  up  to  the  level  at  which  they  completely  separate 
from  each  ether  ; for  otherwise  this  separation  would  occur 
at  different  heights  between  different  ribs,  which  has  a very 
bad  effect  ;* — Srdly,  that  from  this  point  upwards  their  cur- 
vatures should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  make  them  all  meet  their 
fellows  at  the  same  horizontal  plane,  so  that  all  the  ridges 
of  the  vault  may  be  on  one  level. f 

The  pseudo-elliptic  vaultings  are  more  pleasing  than  the 
truly  elliptic  ones,  on  account  of  the  greater  variety  arising 
from  the  plain  portions  not  forming  parts  of  one  continued 
surface  ; so  that  no  rib  can  strictly  be  called  a surface-rib , 
though  that  name  is  commonly  given  to  all  except  the  groins, 
ridge-ribs,  and  wall-ribs  or  formerets  next  the  wall. 

But  the  geometrical  nicety,  not  to  say  difficulty,  of  such 

* This  precaution  was  equally  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  elliptic  ribs,  and  i3 
observed  most  accurately  in  the  vaulting  of  the  Dean’s  Yard  passage  above  men- 
tioned, which,  though  simple,  is  a most  splendid  piece  of  architectural  geometry. 
In  the  clumsy  contrivances  preceding  this,  the  ribs  sprung  from  the  capital,  not 
only  with  different  curvatures,  but  with  different  inclinations,  the  centres  of  some 
or  all  r.eing  lower  than  the  springing.  Afterwards  this  was  not  allowed.  A condi- 
tion was  imposed  first,  that  they  should  all  spring  vertically,  and  then,  all  uith 
equal  radii.  The  problems  thu£  arising,  rendered  a single  rib  a.  work  of  more 
thought,  ihan  a whole  building,  to  many  modern  architects. 

f When  they  are  not  at  the  same  level, 
either  the  ridges  must  have  a domical  rise 
(as  in  most  foreign  examples,)  which  gives 
them  a push  against  tbe  enclosing  arches,  as 
at  St.  Sophia,  and  is  therefore  objectionable; 
or  else  the  lower  vauD,  if  it  have  a level 
ridge,  will  at  its  intersection  with  the  side 
of  the  higher,  form  a leaning  arch  (called  a 
Welsh  arch, ) which  is  supported  by  the  ribs 
above  its  vortex.  This  construction  was  not 
common  in  the  pure  Gothic,  though  exam- 
ples occur  in  the  beautiful  domed  kitchen  at 
Durham,  and  in  Winchester  cathedral  nave  ; 
in  the,  latter  unnecessarily,  for  the  side 
arches  rise  as  high  as  the  main  vault,  but 
their  ridges  descend  towards  it, — a decided 
defect,  as  it  causes  them  to  push  inwards  Winchester  vaulting  (bird’s  eye  view 
against  its  haunches  or  weakest  parts,  and  plan  of  one  compartment.) 


220 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


works,  led,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to  a simplification  of 
their  general  form,  yet  admitting  of  indefinite  increase  in  the 
decoration.  This  was  the  beautiful  invention  of  what  is 
called  fan-tracery  vaulting , fvery  improperly,  for  a fan-like 
arrangement  of  ribs  may  be,  and  often  is,  applied  to  the  sur- 
face of  any  kind  of  vault.) 


This  invention  might  prop- 
erly be  termed  palm  vaulting, 
or  geometrically,  the  conoidal 
or  concavo-convex  vaulting. 
This  regularity  is  shown  in 
the  engraving,  where  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  portion  of 
vault  springing  from  each  pil- 
lar has  the  form  of  an  inverted 
concave-sided  pyramid,  its  hor- 
izontal section  at  every  level 
being  square  or  rectangular. 


Rectangular  Vaulting-pyramid. 
a a a a,  groin- ribs. 
b b b,  formerets. 
c c,  tiercerons 


This  improvement,  not  yet  develop- 
ed fully,  is  shown  in  these  engrav- 
ings, the  first  of  which  is  a view  of 
the  porch  of  St.  Sepulchre  New-at  , 
gate,  and  the  next  of  a porch  at 
Guildhall. 

In  the  above  example  (St.  Sep- 
ulchre) it  will  be  observed  that  the 
ribs,  rising  all  to  an  equal  height, 
have  a lozenge  of  flat  ceiling  in  the 
centre  of  each  compartment,  and 


Hexagonal  Vaulting-pyramid, 
imperfectly  developed. 

St.  Sepulchre,  Newgate. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


221 


this  space  would  be  larger  in 
the  more  perfect  development 
of  this  method.  Hence  on  a 
large  scale  it  is  necessary  that 
the  space  should  be  domed, 
and  this  is  most  consistently 
done  by  simply  continuing  the 
ribs  with  unaltered  curvature, 
till  they  meet  and  form  two 
ridges,  as  m the  early  vault-  equal  curvature, 

ings,  with  this  difference,  that  here,  as  the  ribs  have  all  the 
same  radius  and  different  lengths,  they  must  all  rise  to  dif- 
ferent heights  before 
meeting,  so  that  the  ridg- 
es are  not  level , as  in  the 
early  vaulting,  but  grad- 
ually descend  every  way 
from  the  centre  point, 
which  is  the  highest  in 
the  vault.  These  arches, 
described  from  four  cen- 
tres, soon  found  their  way  

bridge,  (skeleton  lines  of  one  compartment.) 

from  the  vaulting  into  all 

other  parts  of  the  building,  and  became  a distinctive  style 
called  Tudor. 

The  Tudor,  or  four  centred  arch,  is  not  necessarily  flat  or 
depressed.  Its  chief  advantages  are,  that  it  can  be  made 
of  any  proportion,  high  or  low,  and  always  with  a decided 
angle  at  the  vortex  ; whereas  the  common  Gothic  must  al- 
ways be  of  a higher  proportion  than  a semi-circle. 

From  this  style  arose  the  “ depressed  Tudor,”  with  the 
aspiring  lines  of  the  Gothic,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Tudor. 

The  essential  parts  of  one  quarter  of  a compartment  are 
shown  towards  the  left  hand  of  the  accompanying  figure.  It 


222 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


will  be  seen 
that  the 
whole  rests 
on  the  great 
arch  a a,  di- 
viding one 
c ompart- 

ment  from  another.  This  is  of  the  two- 
centred  form,  but  if  the  vaulted  conoids 
had  been  made  to  follow  its  curvature, 
and  spring  with  it  from  the  same  ori- 
gin, they  would  obviously  so  intersect  as  to  leave  for  the 
clerestory  window  nothing  but  the  small,  inconvenient,  lan- 
cet-formed space,  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  at  b.  To  gain 
height  and  space,  therefore,  for  these  windows,  the  main  co- 
noids are  made  to  spring,  not  from  the  foot  of  the  arch  a, 
but  from  a point  c,  about  half-way  up  its  curve  ; and  the 
ribs  diverging  thence  in  every  direction,  form,  of  course,  not 
merely  half  but  entire,  conoids  and  it  is  no  small  advantage 
that  the  lateral  thrusts  of  all  these  ribs  destroy  each  other  : 
but  their  downward  pressure,  embracing  the  collected  weight 
of  nearly  the  whole  ceiling,  concentrated  on  the  two  points 
c c of  each  arch,  is  a serious  defect  with  the  present  form  of 
arch,  for  it  properly  demands  an  arch  with  cusps  at  c c,  as 
well  as  at  the  vortex  ; and  though  the  three-jointed  arch  thus 
formed  might  be  unpleasing  in  ordinary  situations,  it  would 
be  beautiful  here,  because  statically  correct.*  It  might 
have  been  obtained  without  interfering  with  the  general  de- 
sign, either  by  bringing  up  a highly  iuclined  rib  from  some 

* This  property  of  arches  (by  which  each  pressure  concentrated  on  a point  calls 
for  a cusp  at  that  point,  and  each  cusp  calls  foT’  a concentration  of  pressure  on  it.) 
maybe  shown  by  the  cate  ary,  which  becomes  an  inverted 
Gothic  arch  whenever  a weight  is  suspended  from  one  link. 

Hooke’s  discovery,  “ ut  pendet  continuum  flexile,  sic  stabit 
contiguum  rigidum  inversum,”  is  a motto  never  to  be  forgotten 
in  Gothic  building.  A French  street  lamp,  or  a spider’s  web, 
may  thu-  teach  the  architect  important  lessons  ; and  perhaps 
the  equilibrium  of  some  of  the  boldest  vaultings  was  insured  by 
experiments  on  systems  of  chains  representing  the  ribs  inverted. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


223 


point  below  g,  to  give  additional  support  to  the  point  c,  or 
else  by  throwing  a flat  arch  across  from  c to  c,  whose  lateral 
thrust,  by  combining  with  the  downward  pressure  on  these 
points,  would  turn  the  resultant  more  aside,  into  the  body 
of  the  rib  a. 

The  variety  of  curvature  in  compound  arches  often  gives 
them  a peculiar  grace.*  .But  the  “ depressed  ” Tudor  arch 
is  not  a ivzczssary  adjunct  to  conoidal  vaulting,  and  the  gor- 
geous chapel  of  Henry  VII.  presents  us  (if  j\re  can  look 
through  the  disguise  of  meretricious  ornament)  with  a noble 
attempt  to  combine  the  advantages  of  this  vaulting  with  the 
aspiring  expression  and  small  lateral  thrust  of  the  high  two- 
centred  arch.f  The  singularly  complex  vaulting  over  the 
clerestory  of  this  chapel,  seldom  rightly  understood,  becomes, 
when  divested  of  its  inessential  parts,  quite  intelligible,  if  we 
remember  the  architect’s  object,  to  combine  the  most  recent 
constructive  science  with  the  artistic  expression  of  an  earlier 
style,  and  this  in  the  face  of  a great  difficulty,  arising  from 
the  unusually  oblong  plan  of  the  compartment  (nearly  thrice 
as  long  as  its  breadth),  which,  if  treated  by  the  Cambridge 
method,  would  have  required  an  exceedingly  depressed  arch, 
hardly  practicable,  or  at  least,  by  its  great  lateral  thrust, 
requiring  most  clumsy  expedients  on  the  outside  for  its 
abutments. 


* The  three  following  points  should  be  attended  to  i-Q 
these  arches  : 

1.  Their  effect  mainly  depends  on  the  angular  extent 
of  the  lower  curve,  which,  in  good  examples  is  not 
more  than  65°,  nor  less  than  45°. 

2.  The  radius  of  the  upper  eurve  varies  from  txcice 
to  more  than  eisc  times  the  radius  of  the  lower  ; but 
generally  speaking,  the  greater  their  disproportion, 
the  more  obvious,  and  therefore  the  less  pleasing,  is 
the  su4d°n  change  of  curvature. 

3.  It  was  a common  (but  not  a general)  rule  to 
place  the  lower  centres  vertically  below  the  upper  and 


opposite  ones  thus  ; Four-centred  arch. 

f Since  writing  this,  I have  seen  two  other  examples  of  this  most  refined  vault- 
work,  in  the  Cathedral  and  Divinity  School  at  Oxford.  They  are  all  three  nearly 
eontereporary,  so  that  the  priority  of  the  invention  may  be  doubtfuL 


224 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


But  to  return,  the  conoids  springing  from  c c would  suffice 
to  cover  the  whole  plan,  but  the  semi-arches  formed  between 
them  and  the  wall  would  have  been  far  from  pleasing,  besides 
exerting  a push  against  the  top  of  the  wall,  where  it  could 
not  be  conveniently  resisted  (because  not  collected  into  a 
single  resultant.  J The  conoids  are  therefore  opposed  by 
corresponding  half-conoids  springing  from  between  the 
window-heads  at  e,  and  to  meet  their  outward  thrust,  an 
additional  range  of  flying  buttresses  is  provided,  above  the 
common  or  lower  range,  which  take  the  thrust  of  the  arches 
a.  The  two  flying  buttresses  are  distinct,  though  connected 
by  a web  of  open  tracery,  which  also  fills  the  space  a a. 

So  far,  if  the  constructive  principles  of  this  ceiling  had 
been  displayed,  instead  of  disguised,  it  would  (whether  much 
©r  little  ornamented)  have  been  as  much  admired,  and  per- 
haps imitated,  as  it  has  actually  been  wondered  at  and  con- 
demned. But  the  disguise  may  be  thus  accounted  for : as 
the  ribs  of  the  conoids  and  half-conoids  do  not  spring  verti- 
cally from  their  origins  at  c and  e,  their  intersection  would 
form  a segmental  arch  (with  angles  at  its  springing) ; but 
this  not  being  a graceful  form  of  window-head,  its  angles  are 
rounded  off,  and  to  correspond  with  this  and  leave  no  portion 
of  the  wall  unoccupied,  the  half-conoids  are  prolonged  down- 
wards into  the  form  shown  in  dots  at  e.  But  uniformity  was 
carried  too  far  in  making  the  main  conoids,  c,  assume  the 
same  form,  for  this  gives  them  (as  shown  at  c)  the  air  of 
huge  pendents,  for  which,  indeed,  they  are  often  mistaken.  * 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  only  real  pendents  are  those 
hanging  from  the  centre  of  each  compartment,  as  from  d; 

* Another  unfortunate  disguise  arises  from  the  foliation  applied  to  the  rib 
which  reduces  that  important  member  to  apparent  insignificance.  Where  strengths 
is  required,  it  should  not  only  exist,  but  appear.  Bold  and  simple  mouldings, 
should  have  sufficed  for  the  decoration  of  the  main  stem,  which  so  beautifully, 
like  the  leaf-stalk  of  the  fan-palm,  supports  its  spreading  burden,  from  which  the 
artist  might  also  have  learned  the  necessity  of  an  angular  bend  at  e.  The  pliancy 
of  the  vegetable  structure  and  the  brittle  rigidity  of  the  stone  do  ntft,  in' this  re- 
spect, lead  to  different  constructive  principles,  since  the  tendency  in  the  forme?,, 
and  the  aim  in  the  latter,  are  alike — to  avoid  all  hut  CQnigregfflk  forqes^ 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


225 


and  these,  which  occur  also  in  the  same  situation  in  the 
aisles  of  this  building,  at  St.  George’s  chapel,  Windsor,  and 
in  many  foreign  buildings  of  an  earlier  date,  are  not,  as 
many  suppose,  useless  excrescences : they  serve,  like  the 
ridge-ribs  and  bosses  of  a purer  style,  to  supply  that  load  on 
the  vortex  which  the  equilibrium  of  the  pointed  arch  not 
only  admits,  but  requires.  The  abuse  of  these  members 
arose  when  they  were  formed  into  the  semblance  of  ribbed 
and  paneled  conoids,— features  of  support,  apparently 
pointing  to  fand  therefore  demanding J supports  from  below. 

II.  On  the  general  plans. — Before  proceeding  to  examine 
the  other  parts  of  the  Gothic  system,  it  is  necessary  to  glance 
at  the  peculiarities  of  its  buildings  in  general  plan  and  out- 
line. These,  though  all  derived  from  the  well-known  basilica, 
will  be  found  to  present  many  differences  rather  depending 
on  place  than  time.  There  have  been  plans  peculiar  to  cer- 
tain countries  and  even  provinces  ; and  these  peculiarities 
seem  to  have  maintained  their  ground  for  centuries,  unaf- 
fected by  the  changes  in  decorative  style.  Thus  the  churches 
with  two  chancels,  and  those  with  a transept  near  each  end, 
are  peculiar  to  Germany  ; those  with  two  transepts  near  the 
centre,  to  England  ; and  double  or  dipteral  aisles  are  a 
southern  feature  hardly  to  be  found  north  of  Paris.  So  also 
the  apse,  (i.e.,  semi-circular  or  semi-polygonal  termination, ) 
which  was  always  universal,  or  very  nearly  so,  on  the  Con- 
tinent, is  rather  an  exception  than  a rule  in  England  ; while 
the  central  tower  or  lantern,  so  generally  and  largely 
developed  in  England  and  Normandy,  hardly  occurs  in  the 
rest  of  France.  Towers  detached  from  the  church  are 
almost  confined  to  Italy;  and  pairs  of  towers  in  the  rentrant 
angles  (a  very  beautiful  feature  common  over  eastern 
Europe)  hardly  advanced  west  of  the  Rhine. 

Some  Eastern  peculiarities  of  form,  as  the  square  and 
short  cross  plans,  were  introduced  by  Greeks  into  the 
Adriatic  side  of  Italy,  but  spread  no  further,  because  the 
Romish  ritual  involving  processions  required  lengthy 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


churches,  avenues,  and  aisles.  No  such  reasons,  however, 
can  be  given  for  the  other  local  peculiarities  of  plan,  which 
must  be  referred  to  the  peculiar  tastes  of  different  nations. 

The  inventive  fancy  of  the  Germans  seems  to  have  led 
them  to  try,  during  the  Romanesque  period,  every  possible 
combination  of  form  consistent  with  great  length  and  the 
cruciform  plan  ; or  else  the  durability  of  their  stone  has 
preserved  to  us  a greater  number  of  these  early  experiments 
in  Germany  than  elsewhere.  Several  of  the  oldest  churches 
of  Cologne,  (St.  Mary  in  the  Capitol,  St.  Martin,  and  the 
ApostelnkircheJ  as  also  St.  Quirin,  at  Neuss,  and  the  noble 
early  pointed  church  at  Marburg,  present  a plan  which, 
though  classed  among  Latin  crosses,  seems  to  form  a link 
between  them  and  the  Greek.  The  latter  term  is  applied  to 
a cross  with  all  its  limbs  nearly  equal,  and  generally  very 
short,  while  the  form  now  spoken  of  has  three  limbs  equal 
and  similar  ; but  the  fourth,  which  forms  the  entrance,  i« 
considerably  lengthened.*  This  form  is  exceedingly  uncom- 
mon away  from  Cologne,  though  it  is  the  plan  of  the  two 
greatest  cathedrals  of  Italy,  (That  at  Florence  and  the  mod- 

* All  lengthy  crosses  are  called  Latin.  There  are  several  varieties  arising  from 
the  gradual  leogthemng  of  the  eastern  or  chancel  limb,  which,  from  being  at  first 
the  shortest,  became  at  length  in  some  English  examples  the  longest.  We 
may  distinguish — 1st,  The  original  Latin  cross,  resembling  a crucifix,  the  limb  of 
entrance  being  the  longest,  and  that  opposite  the  entrance  the  shortest.  The 
grandest  example  is  the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  and  this  is  also  the  form  of  the  cl  res- 
toi'y  in  the  ancient  basilicas  ; but  their  numerous  aisles  fill  out  the  nave  to  an 
equal  breadth  with  the  transept,  thus  obliterating  all  cruciform  appearance  in  the 
ground  plan.  The  second  kind  of  Latin  cross  is  that  described  above,  formed  by 
lengtheni  g the  chancel,  and  making  both  it  and  the  northern  and  southern  arms 
all  similar.  3dly,  The  beautiful  symmetry  of  this  plan  was  destroyed  by  still  fur- 
ther lengthening  the  eastern  limb,  though  still  keeping  it  shorter  than  the  nave. 
Examples  are  abundant  in  every  country  : the  greatest  are  Milan  and  Rheims  ; in 
England,  Ely  and  Norwich.  4tlily,  The  symmetry  was  restored  by  making  the 
eastern  and  western  arms  equal,  as  at  Amiens  and  Salisbury,  (•see  p ,)  the 
spires  of  which  are  in  the  centres  of  their  length  as  well  as  breadth.  This  is  the 
commonest.  Go' hie  form,  but  its  symmetry  of  plan  does  not  appear  in  the  side 
vi<>w,  because  of  the  low  chapels  forming  the  east  end.  The  continuation  of  the 
clerestory  to  the  extreme  end  seems  peculiar  to  England,  and  is  very  rare  in  largo 
bail  lings  : Ely,  Lincoln,  and  York  cathedrals  are  examples,  but  at  the  latter  the 
eastern  limb  is  rather  longer  than  the  western — a defect  common  in  the  English 
double-cross  churches. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


22  T 


era  Vatican  J having  arisen  in  the  latter  case  from  the  addi- 
tion of  a long  nave  to  what  was  originally  intended  to  be  a 
Greek  cross.  In  all  these  cases  the  three  short  limbs  are 
either  terminated  by,  or  wholly  consist  of,  three  apses. 

Many  of  the  Romanesque  churches  of  the  Rhine  present 
an  extension  of  this  plan  by  forming  a cross  of  this  kind  at 
each  end  of  a long  nave,  of  which  the  finest  example  is  the 
Apostelnkirche.  Hence  arose  the  German  double  cross, 
very  different  from  the  English,  (see  p.  ,)  and  resembling 
rather  this  figure,  J.  The  two  transepts,  however,  were 
never  alike  : one  of  them,  generally  the  western,  has  square 
ends  instead  of  apses  ; frequently  both  are  square-ended,  but 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  building  were  in  many  cases,  as  at 
Mentz,  both  apsidal,  forming  two  chancels,  and  admiting  of 
no  entrance  in  the  axis  of  the  building,  but  only  in  its  sides, 
(as  at  Worms  and  Oppenheim,)  or  on  each  side  of  the 
western  apse,  (as  at  the  very  curious  abbey  of  Laach.) 

In  later  buildings  the  western  apse  was  omitted,  but  the 
eastern  always  retained,  and  occasionally  it  was  flanked  by 
two  minor  apses  projecting  from  the  eastern  sides  of  the 
transept  arms.  This  arrangement  occurs  in  France  at  Rouen 
cathedral,  and  in  England  at  Romsey,  Hants  ; but  in  Ger- 
many it  seems  common,  the  best  known  examples  be#ig 
Laach,  Andernach,  and  Gelnhausen.  In  the  latter,  the  side 
apses  are  carried  up  to  form  towers.  This  triapsal  plan,  far 
inferior  in  beauty  to  that  above  described  in  the  Cologne 
churches,  arose  from  the  then  newly-introduced  custom  of 
orientation,  or  placing  every  altar  against  an  eastern  wall  ; 
whence  also  the  practice  of  giving  transepts  an  aisle  on  their 
east  side  only,  destroying  the  symmetry  of  their  end  facades, 
as  at  Salisbury,  fp.  ). 

Sometimes  a transept  projected  so  little  as  to  appear  only 
in  the  clerestory,  and  not  to  affect  the  ground  plan,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  lesser  transept  at  the  abbey  of  Heisterbach, 
and  the  only  one  at  Freiburg  minster,  both  of  the  Transition 
or  earliest  Pointed  period.  Both  of  these  transepts,  how- 


228 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ever,  are  lower  than  the  clerestory,  though  higher  than  tlx© 
aisles,  which  is  a great  detriment  to  the  unity  of  the  builds 
ing.  The  transept  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris,  and  the  lesser 
one  at  York,  are  of  the  same  kind,  but,  being  as  high  as  the 
main  building,  are  free  from  this  objection. 

The  German  Romanesque  churches  are  not  more  remark- 
able for  these  varieties  of  plan,  than  for  similar  complexities 
of  outline  produced  by  their  numerous  towers,  amounting  in 
some  cases  to  six , and  at  the  small  cathedral  of  Limburg  to 
seven.  The  crossing  of  each  transept  had  usually  a low 
square  tower  concealed  by  the  roofs  ; four  arches  thrown 
across  the  angles  of  this,  served  to  support  the  oblique  walls 
of  an  octagonal  lantern  rising  above  the  roofs,  and  terminat- 
ing internally  by  a cupola,  externally  by  a pyramidal  roof, 
pitched  at  an  angle  of  60°,  or  more.  The  western  tower, 
however,  ('whether  placed  over  the  crossing  of  the  west 
transept,  or  at  the  extreme  west  end,)  was  usually  without 
an  octagon,  and  ended  in  a square  pyramidal  roof,  the  sides 
of  which  correspond  to  the  angles  of  the  tower,  and,  by 
intersecting  its  sides,  form  four  high-pitched  gables.  This 
form  of  tower-roof  is  a striking  characteristic  of  the  older 
German  churches.* 

£mall  towers  or  turrets  were  placed  in  pairs,  first,  near 
the  east  end  only,  as  at  the  Apostelnkirche  ; then  near  both 
ends,  as  at  Speyer,  Mentz,  and  Laach  ; and  finally,  at  the 
west  only,  as  in  most  Gothic  churches,  where  they  assume 
greater  importance,  and  become  (at  least  on  the  Continent) 
the  principal  towers  both  for  size  and  height.  When  there 
were  two  towers  at  each  end,  the  two  pairs  were  always 
varied  in  form,  height,  and  distance  asunder.  Thus,  at 
Laach,  the  octagonal  eastern  lantern  is  flanked  by  square 
towers,  and  the  square  western  one  by  octagonal  towers:  the 
latter  are  placed  as  far  apart  as  possible,  viz.,  at  the  ex- 

* According  to  some  engravings  it  seems  to  be  in  some  cases  octagonal,  with  an 
angle  over  each  angle  of  the  square  tower,  but  they  are  often  unintelligible  or 
irreconcilable.  Even  in  Moller’s  fine  work  there  are  discrepancies  in  this  respect. 
(See  his  Plates  tff  Limburg  cathedral.) 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


229 


tremities  of  the  western  transept,  while  the  former  are  as 
near  as  possible,  viz.,  in  the  eastern  rentrant  angles — a posi- 
tion common  in  the  oldest  German  buildings,  and  which 
gives  to  the  eastern  view  of  the  Apostelnki'rche  a Byzantine 
and  almost  mosque-like  character.  All  these  towers  termi- 
nate in  pyramids  or  spires. 

The  seven  towers  of  Limburg  consist  of  a central  octagon 
and  spire,  two  large  square  western  towers,  with  gable  pyra- 
mids,* and  four  slender  ones  of  the  same  kind,  at  the  extreme 
corners  of  the  transept, — a rather  unusual  position.  Such 
towers,  however,  occur  in  the  great  Gothic  cathedrals  of 
Rouen  and  Rheims  ;f  and  there  is  good  evidence  that  they 
formerly  existed  in  the  Saxon  transept  ends  of  Winchester, 
but  were  removed  probably  in  the  alterations  of  1079. 
Historic  mention  is  made  of  a tower  or  towers,  also  at  the 
east  end  of  that  immense  Romanesque  pile,  which  must  have 
been  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  Speyer. 

There  are  also  instances  of  pairs  of  towers  so  attached  on 
each  side  of  the  church  as  to  form  themselves  a transept. 
This  occurs  sometimes  at  the  west  front  in  all  countries,  as  at 
Rouen  cathedral,  Lincoln,  and  Wells.  Again,  two  buildings 
on  the  extreme  confines  of  the  Gothic  sway,J  perhaps  the 
easternmost  and  westernmost  examples  of  pure  Gothic,  agree 
in  one  great  peculiarity.  Exeter  and  Vienna  present  instances 
of  the  only  transept  being  formed  by  two  towers  built  against 
the  sides  of  the  church. 

* A convenient  name  for  the  form  of  roof  above  described. 

f These  towers  possess,  both  at  Rouen  and  Rheims,  a peculiar  and  rather  elegant 
character.  They  rise  no  higher  than  the  main  roof,  are  less  ornate  than  the  rest 
of  the  building,  and  have  each  face  occupied  by  one  lofty  unglazed  window,  or 
open  arch,  divided  into  two  lights  by  a very  slender  shaft. 

% The  geographical  range  of  the  Gothic  style  cannot  be  very  exactly  defined, 
owing  to  the  habit  which  eastern  travelers  have,  of  calling  everything  that  con 
tains  a pointed  arch,  Gothic.  It  seems,  however,  to  extend  as  far  s.  E.,  as  Corfu, 
or  perhaps  Rhodes,  and  n.  w.,  to  Ireland  ; n.  e , to  the  Baltic  Isle  of  Gottland,  and 
s.  w.,  to  the  oceanic  isle  of  Madeira,  where  the  extravagantly  debased  niches  of  the 
cathedral  of  Funchal  furnish  (in  the  first  modern  colony)  the  last  expiring  effort 
of  mediaeval  art  : geographically  placed  between  two  worlds,  it  seems  fitly  to  stand 
botwebn  two  historical  epochs. 


20 


230 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


The  Gothic  buildings  of  France,  though  more  magnificent, 
present  less  variety  of  form,  and  far  less  external  beauty, 
than  those  of  either  Germany  or  England.  Their  compari- 
son with  the  latter  shows  some  great  differences  in  general 
design,  which  we  will  endeavor  to  trace. 

The  year  1219  is  remarkable  for  the  foundation  of  two 
cathedrals  of  the  largest  class,  one  in  Erance  the  other  in 
England — Amiens  cathedral  and  Salisbury  cathedral ; one 
French  Gothic,  the  other  English.  Our  limits  forbid  a 
comparison  of  their  respective  merits. 

We  should  observe,  that  the  churches  of  Normandy  (espe- 
cially the  three  magnificent  ones  at  Rouen)  approach  the 
English  rather  than  the  French  type.  They  exhibit  their 
lengthy  proportions,  (every  other  dimension  seeming  sacrificed 
to  lineal  extent,)  their  strongly  marked  transept  and  outer 
buttresses,  and  their  great  central  feature  predominating  over 
the  western  towers,  which  in  France  were  generally  the 
principal  ones.  Normandy  seems  always  to  have  formed 
architecturally  an  English  province  ; and  the  observer  who 
goes  from  Westminster  to  Rouen,  goes  from  a French  build- 
ing to  English  ones. 

The  greater  proportion  of  height  to  breadth  in  the  French 
Gothic  avenues  is  not  a general  feature  ; the  great  majority 
of  such  vistas,  in  all  countries  alike,  having  the  height  equal 
to  twice  the  breadth.  A higher  proportion  is  confined  to 
buildings  of  the  largest  class  ; for  the  larger  they  are,  the 
greater  may  this  proportion  be  without  appearing  excessive. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  the  introduction  of  arching,  by 
enabling  wider  spaces  to  be  covered  than  by  lintels,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  required  more  extent  of  abutment  (for  the 
same  width  of  span),  the  higher  it  was  raised  above  the 
ground  would  for  both  these  reasons  have  led  to  openings  of 
a lower  and  wider  proportion,  both  in  windows,  arches, 
avenues,  and  entire  buildings.  But  this  was  not  the  case,  at 
least  not  in  ecclesiastical  buildings,  the  designers  of  which 
continued  to  be  fully  alive  to  the  majesty  of  tall  proportions. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


231 


even  when  obtained  at  the  expense  of  space  and  convenience  ; 
and  they  never,  till  the  latest  period  of  the  style,  admitted 
archways  for  any  purpose,  great  or  small,  lower  than  twice 
their  breadth  This  was  also  the  proportion  given  to  single 
openings  by  the  classical  ancients,  not  only  in  doors  and 
windows,  but  in  distyle  porticoes  (as  those  of  the  Tower  of 
the  Winds.)  But  it  seems  to  have  often  escaped  notice,  that 
in  both  systems  the  placing  of  several  openings  side  by  side 
(at  least  externally)  renders  a taller  form  necessary,  and  this 
in  proportion  to  their  number.  A tetrastyle  portico  formed 
simply  by  the  extension  of  the  distyle,  would  be  low  and 
squat  ; it  requires  to  be  nearly  square  in  its  general  outline, 
i,  e.,  the  height  of  its  openings  must  be  about  thrice  their 
breadth.  A hexastyle  portico  requires  the  columns  to  be 
placed  still  nearer  than  a tetrastyle,  as  appears  plainly  from 
comparing  the  two  porticoes  of  the  Erechtheum.  But  two 
columns  taken  out  from  either  of  these,  especially  the 
hexastyle,  would  be  quite  inapplicable  as  a distyle  porch, 
the  opening  being  much  too  narrow.  The  prevailing  faults 
of  the  English  Gothic  is  lowness  of  proportion. 

The  whole  internal  portions  of  Amiens  are  so  admirable, 
that  this  model  was  closely  followed  in  two  other  immense 
edifices,  each  intended  to  have  exceeded  every  human  work, 
but,  after  centuries  of  labor,  left  not.  half  complete.  Beau- 
vais remains  a choir  and  transept  only  ; Cologne  a mere 
choir.  The  first  of  these  glorious  fragments,  while  preserv- 
ing the  proportions  of  its  model  very  exactly,  exceeds  it  in 
scale  .by  about  one-sixth  : while  Cologne  would  have  been, 
internally,  almost  a copy  of  Amiens,  all  the  modular  dimen- 
sions differing  only  by  a few  inches.  The  German  cathedral, 
however,  besides  the  advantage  of  a more  complete  style, 
would  have  had  a strongly  marked  transept,  advancing  four 
equal  compartments  each  way,  a stone  central  tower  and 
pyramid  of  a breadth  proportioned  to  the  building,  and  two 
colossal  western  towers  and  spires  as  high  as  its  whole 
length,  and  so  adjusted  that  a straight  line  might  be  drawn 


232 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


from  their  summit,  touching  that  of  the  central  lantern  and 
of  the  east  end.  This  building,  if  completed  exactly  accord- 
ing to  the  design,  would  certainly  eclipse  all  others  of  every 
age,  country  and  style. 

The  duomo  of  Milan,  the  greatest  completed  Gothic  struc- 
ture of  Italy  or  perhaps  the  world,  also  closely  follows 
Amiens,  both  in  proportions  and  scale,  the  chief  alteration 
being  that  of  placing  the  transept  nearer  the  eastern  than 
the  western  end. 

The  buttress-chapels  (or  else  double  aisles)  of  the  conti- 
nental churches  called  for  peculiar  modes  of  roofing.  Instead 
of  one  longitudinal  leanto  or  semi-roof,  there  is  commonly  a 
separate  and  complete  roof  over  each  compartment,  but  ex- 
tending transversely  over  both  the  inner  and  outer  aisle,  and 
terminating  both  ways  in  hips.  Such  is  the  case  at  Cologne, 
and  at  the  nave  and  apsis  of  Amiens,  but  in  the  choir  they 
terminate  outwardly  in  gables, — an  arrangement  which 
seems  more  consistent  than  any  other  with  the  Gothic  prin- 
ciples. The  superb  church  of  St.  Ricquier,  near  Abbeville, 
presents  a singular  modification  of  this.  Instead  of  each 
roof  covering  a compartment,  it  covers  two  half-compart- 
ments, making  a gable  over  each  buttress,  and  a gutter  over 
each  window. 

As  these  modes  of  aisle-roofing  do  not  abut  against  the 
central  building,  they  do  not  necessarily  lead  to  a triforium  ; 
and  the  clerestory  windows  might  be  continued  quite  down 
to  the  cornice  over  the  aisle  arches.  Such  is,  in  fact,  the 
case  ; but  the  architects,  wishing  to  retain  a kind  of  trifori- 
um, formed  the  lower  part  of  these  windows  into’ a very  nar- 
row one,  not  lighted  from  within,  as  with  us,  but  admitting 
light  from  without.  These  galleries  are  formed,  as  it  were, 
in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, — if  that  can  be  called  a wall 
which  consists  only  of  two  fairy-like  arcades, — the  outer 
glazed,  the  inner  left  open.  The  shafts  of  both  are  of  the 
utmost  slenderness,  having  nothing  to  support  but  the  walk 
above,  open  to  the  exterior,  and  the  glass  of  the  clerestory 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


233 


window  ; and  hence  there  is  no  wide  arch  spanning  the  whole 
compartment,  or  at  least  half  of  it,  as  in  English  triforia. 
While  the  Mind  triforium  at  Abbeville,  with  tracery  and  par- 
apets varied  in  each  compartment,  is  exquisitely  beautiful, 
these  luminous  triforia  at  Cologne,  Amiens,  Beauvais,  and 
St.  Ouen,  by  admitting  light  where  we  commonly  see  solid 
wall  or  dark  openings,  produce  an  effect  our  Gothic  never 
reached. 

Dr.  Moller  observes,  that  the  Gothic  churches  of  Hesse 
are  mostly  without  clerestories,  but  does  not  say  whether 
their  outer  roofs  all  resemble  that  at  Marburg, — an  interest- 
ing question,  as  this  kind  of  building  (which  has  its  own  pe- 
culiar style  of  beauty,  and  is  well  adapted  to  modern  wants) 
is  very  variously  roofed  in  different  countries.  At  Vienna, 
one  enormous  high-pitched  roof  covers  all  three  avenues,  and 
gives  the  form  of  a barn,  with  more  roof  than  wall.  At  the 
east  end  of  Salisbury,  a similar  roof,  but  with  a moderate 
pitch,  below  45°,  is  skillfully  adjusted  at  the  end  to  fit  three 
acute  gables, — an  example  well  worthy  of  modern  imitation. 
The  more  general  English  method  was  by  three  distinct  lon- 
gitudinal roofs,  (as  at  the  Temple  church,)  leaving  the  inter- 
mediate gutters  to  be  choked  by  every  fall  of  snow.  At  Mar- 
burg, the  aisles  are  covered  by  transverse  roofs  over  each  com- 
partment, originally  (now  over  each  pair)  proceeding  from 
the  central  roof,  and  terminating  outwardly  in  hips. 

In  the  foreign  dipteral  churches,  whether  with  the  outer 
aisles  open  or  divided  into  buttress-chapels,  these  parts  were 
commonly  of  the  same  height  with  the  inner  aisles.  Milan 
and  Beauvais  present  exceptions  to  this.  They  have  what 
may  be  called  a double  clerestory,  the  inner  aisles  rising  above 
the  outer  aisles  or  chapels,  and  having  windows  above  them. 
At  Milan,  the  outer  aisles  are  so  disproportionately  high, 
that  these  two  clerestories,  which  are  exactly  equal  and 
similar,  are  reduced  to  a very  poor  altitude  ; and  the  com- 
partments being  very  broad,  the  vaulting  leaves  room  in  each 
ca£&  for  only  a very  small  window  under  its  crown,  i.  c.,  in 


234 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


the  centre  of  each  wide  compartment.  Thus  these  two  tiers 
of  thinly-scattered  holes  admit  only  just  light  enough  to 
destroy  the  unity  of  a building  with  five  avenues  of  equal 
height  ; and  this  famous  duomo  has  neither  the  beauty  of 
the  common  Gothic  nor  of  the  Hessian  arrangement,  but  the 
disadvantages  of  both,  with  neither  the  airy  clerestory  nor 
the  palm-like  combination  of  pillar  and  out-branching  vault- 
ribs,  which  is  peculiar  to  buildings  without  clerestories.  But 
how  differently  is  this  managed  at  Beauvais,  which,  though 
the  loftiest  apartment  ever  built,  is  yet  made  by  its  numerous 
stories,  and  their  skilfully-contrasted  inequalities,  to  appear 
both  inwardly  and  outwardly  loftier  than  it  really  is.  For 
writhin  we  find,  first,  the  enclosure  walls  of  the  outer  chapels, 
then  their  lofty  windows  ; above  their  vaulting  a small  blank 
triforium,  and  then  the  moderate-sized  aisle  windows  ; again, 
(above  the  aisle  vaulting,)  the  great  transparent  triforium, 
and  then  the  immense  clerestory,  with  windows  longer  even 
than  those  of  the  outer  tier,  and  at  least  ten  times  the  height 
of  the  first  blank  triforium,  which  yet  is  (or  seems)  high 
enough  to  form  a gallery.  A dimension  is  not  increased  in 
appearance  by  division  into  equal  parts,  but  only  into  unequal 
ones  well  contrasted.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  uni- 
form repetition  of  columns,  windows,  or  other  features,  adds 
to  apparent  length  ; but  the  unequal  divisions  of  length 
formed  in  a Gothic  church  by  the  vestibule,  nave, -crossing, 
chancel,  &e.,  give  artificial  length,  and  the  unequal  stories 
give  artificial  height,  while  the  equal  stories  of  a factory  pro- 
duce no  such  effect.*  This  principle  of  contrasted  division 
is  important  in  the  composition  of  mouldings.  In  good 

* Perhaps  a gradated  division,  diminishing  upwards,  may  also  give  apparent 
height.  No  building,  of  the  same  altitude,  appears  nearly  so  lofty  as  a Doric 
portico  ; on  which  Pap  worth  observes — ‘ In  the  vertical  subdivisions  of  the 
masses  forming  the  columns,  the  triglyphs,  the  metopes,  and  the  mutules,  and 
even  the  ornaments  above  them, — the  acroteria  and  terminations  of  the  roof. — it 
is  evident  that  great  attention  was  paid  to  produce  the  effect  of  altitude,  by  con- 
ducting the  eye  from  the  base  upward  along  the  columns  and  entablature,  in  a 
succession  of  lines  admirably  proportioned  to  each  other,  and  becoming  shorter  as 
they  approach  the  summit  of  the  building. ; ’ 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


235 


cornices  we  never  find  two  members  of  equal  or  nearly  equal 
height  together,  nor  should  two  conspicuous  members  of  the 
some  kind  be  nearly  equal,  even  though  separated  by  nume- 
rous members  of  a different  kind.  Alteration  is  as  bad  as 
succession  of  equal  parts.  There  must  also  be  a fixed  limit 
to  the  principle  of  contrast  where  it  begins  to  interfere  with 
that  of  multitude.  There  must  be  a certain  disproportion 
between  two  divisions  which  should  not  be  exceeded,  because 
then  the  larger  division  would  appear  greater,  divided  into 
two,  then  entire.  What  is  this  limiting  ratio  ? An  examina- 
tion of  the  finest  classic  examples  would  seem  to  give,  for 
this  limit,  the  ratio  of  10  or  12  to  1.  A greater  disproportion 
than  this,  the  eye  can  hardly  measure  or  understand  as  a con- 
trast. While  very  small  differences  (if  visible  at  all)  are 
always  orer-estimate-d,  very  great  ones  are  always  under- 
estimated.  'Good  examples  of  contrasted  division  should  be 
copied  simply  as  such.  They  are  equally  applicable  to  the 
divisions  of  a building  or  of  the  smallest  moulding,  conducing 
alike  to  sublimity  in  the  one,  and  beauty  in  the  other. 

The  origin  of  the  chief  peculiarity  of  general  form  in  the 
English  Gothic,  viz.,  the  eastern  minor  transept,  may  be 
accounted  thus  : — In  cruciform  churches  there  were  two  modes 
of  placing  the  choir  and  its  furniture  ; either  in  the  eastern 
limb,  which  was  most  common,  or  in  the  centre  of  the 
cross.  This  place  was  especially  proper  when  Ifeere  was  a 
lofty  lantern  over  it,  as  in  the  Italian  duomi  and  English 
cathedrals,  but  not  in  the  French,  in  which  accordingly  there 
seems  to  be  only  one  example  of  this  arrangement,  viz.,  at 
Rheims. 

This  plan  had  the  advantage  of  placing  the  choir  in 
the  most  imposing  spot,  where  alone  the  whole  building 
displayed  itself  in  five  grand  perspectives,*  but  it  had  the 
defect  of  shutting  out  the  view  of  the  transept  arms  from  the 
nave  and  from  each  other,  which  latter  was  always  the  finest 

* The  fifth  being  the  tower,  which  was  in  all  these  cases  originally  open  as  a 
lantern. 


236 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


proportioned  vista  in  the  building,  because  not  too  lengthy 
for  its  other  dimensions. 

There  is  another  peculiarly  English  variation  on  the  general 
Gothic  plan,  which  deserves  attention,  and  ought  to  render 
the  name  of  Alan  de  Walsingham  preeminent  among  the 
few  Gothic  names  that  have  descended  to  us.  This  architect 
invented  the  truly  masterly  expedient  of  altogether  omitting  the 
four  middle  piers  for  supporting  towers,  thereby  at  once 
forming  a noble  octagonal  central  space,  distributing  the 
weight  of  its  covering,  or  lantern,  among  eight  instead  of 
four  supporters,  greatly  diminishing  the  inward  push  on  each, 
^because  it  receives  the  thrusts  of  its  two  abuting  arches 
inclined  135°  to  each  other,  instead  of  90,°)  and,  lastly, 
enabling  these  piers  to  be  enlarged  to  any  extent  in  one 
direction  (out wards ) without  stoping  or  even  contracting 
any  one  of  six  avenues  of  the  church. 

This  invention  is  equally  applicable  to  any  style,  or  any 
mode  of  construction  ;*  and  if  disposed  to  underrate  it  on 
account  of  its  simplicity,  we  should  ask,  Why  was  it  never 
used  before  ? We  might  add,  why  has  it  never  been  rein- 
vented even  by  the  most  ingenious  modern  architects  ? In 
looking  over  the  engraved  designs  of  Palladio,  Scamozzi, 
Yignola,  &c.,  it  is  wonderful  to  observe  how  very  nearly 
they  often  approached  this  idea  without  ever  completely 
reaching  Indeed,  no  example  -of  it  seems  to  have  been 
finished  out  of  England,  either  in  the  Gothic  or  Italian 
styles,J — and  even  in  its  native  land,  it  lay  dormant  at  Ely 

* There  is  a beau  tiful  instance  of  its  use  in  lintel  construction  in  the  tomb  at 
Mylassa  (figured  in  the  “ Ionian  Antiquities”  of  the  Dilettanti  Society.)  Accord- 
ing to  Mr  Fergusson,  the  same  form  is  common  in  Indian  mausolea.  It  would 
thus  seem  to  have  been  invented  thrice,  in  Ionia,  India,  and  England,  at  widely 
different  epochs. 

t It  did  not,  however,  escape  those  excellent  geometers,  the  Spanish  Arabs. 
Since  writing  this,  I have  learnt  of  a complete  vaulted  example  by  them,  in  a bath 
at  Barcelona. 

J Most,  modern  Italian  churches  have  the  octagon  space,  bu+  at  the  expense  of 
the  aisle  avenues,  which  are  either  absent,  or  blocked  up.  as  at  St.  1 e'er’s.  From 
a plan  which  Wiebeking  saw  in  the  archives  of  the  cathedral  of  Bologna,  begun 
1388,  it  appears  that  the  Ely  octagon  was  proposed  on  an  immense  scale  (116 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


23 1 

for  three  centuries.  Of  its  revival,  Ware  says,  “The  octa- 
gon base,  and  the  vista  of  the  aisles  through  it,  is  together 
an  invention  not  easily  allowed  even  to  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.”  Wren  never  claimed  it  ; he  had  native  plumes 
enough  without  borrowing  any.  Yet,  perhaps,  if  his  uncle 
had  not  been  Bishop  of  Ely,  St.  Pauls,  though  a fine,  would 
not  have  been  an  unique  building. 

This  great  man,  from  the  beginning  of  his  career,  appre- 
ciated the  manifold  merits  of  the  plan  peculiar  to  his  uncle’s 
church,  and  when  called  on  to  repair  Westminster  abbey,  he 
intended  to  remodel  its  centre  on  this  type.  Bad  details 
and  Italian  cornices  could  well  have  been  tolerated  for  the 
sake  of  such  an  improvement ; especially  needed  here,  not 
only  to  fit  the  building  for  its  present  use,  (for  which  it  is 
now,  like  most  Gothic  structures,  singularly  ill  adapted,) 
but  also  to  correct  its  peculiar  defects  ; which  are  a want  of 
monumental  durability;  and  an  irregularity  in  the  compart- 
ments next  the  crossing,  which  in  the  nave  are  wider,  and  in 
the  transept  narrower,  than  their  regular  width.  But  this 
improvement  remains  to  be  made.  At  some  future  day  ("let 
us  hope,  of  pure  taste,)  when  the  hoary  pile  grows  infirm 
and  full  of  days,  and  not  only  convenience,  durability,  and 
beauty,  but  safety  also,  calls  for  it,  Wren’s  plan  will  doubt- 
less be  carried  out,  without  the  faults  of  his  details. 

Disappointed  here,  however,  Wren  applied  the  principle  to 
one  of  his  smallest  and  cheapest  buildings,  which  consequent- 

feet  diameter)  for  that  building,  but  the  cinquecentist  architects  were  too  timid  to 
venture  on  it,  for  the  wooden  model  in  the  sacristy  adheres  to  the  old  method  with 
four  central  piers  ; and  neither  project  has  suited  the  resources  of  “ Bologna  the 
Fat,”  for  the  nave  only  is  built.  The  cathedral  of  Pavia,  however,  begun  in 
1489,  but  equally  unfinished,  presents  the  octagon  half-developed,  and  com- 
pletely so  in  the  original  design  of  its  architect,  Rocchi.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  duomo  at  Florence  (left  roofless  till  a council  of  architects  and  engineers 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  assembled  to  consult  how  to  cover  it)  exhibits  the 
rudiment  of  the  English  octagon  ; but,  if  so,  it  is  very  rudimentary  indeed. 
The  very  ancient  little  Byzantine  chapel  of  Santa  Fosca,  on  the  Isle  of  Tor- 
cello.  in  the  Venetian  lagunes,  presents  a much  nearer  approach  ; but  in  this, 
as  well  as  in  the  modern  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Grazia,  at  Milan,  the  resem- 
blance is  only  in  p'.an,  no  advantage  being  taken  of  the  octagon  for  facilitating  the 
covering,  which  is  by  a dome,  on  fowr  pendentives  only,  covering  the  square. 


238 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


ly  { though  only  a plaster  representation,  never  yet  executed, 
as  it  might  easily  be,  in  permanent  building)  has  given  the 
narrow  lane  of  Walbrook  an  European  celebrity  ;*  and 

* The  just  and  universal  approbation  bestowed  on  the  interior  of  this  l:ttle 
church,  renders  it  one  of  the  very  few  modem  buildings  that  furnish  proper  ob- 
jects for  that  search  into  principles  which  it  has  been  our  study  to  apply  to  the 
chief  ancient  and  mediaeval  models.  In  such  a search,  we  cannot  but  observe,  first, 
that  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren’s  fifty  churches,  this  is,  I think,  the  only  one  with- 
out galleries.  How  greatly,  then,  must  the  facility,  or  rather,  the  possibility,  of 
designing  a fine  interior,  be  diminished  by  requiring  a great  portion  (often 
more  than  half)  of  its  area  to  be  divided  into  two  floors  ; when  even  this  great 
man,  in  so  many  trials,  did  not  once  succeed  in  solving  this  problem  satisfac- 
torily, or  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  approaching  to  that  which  he  so  easily 
produced,  in  one  trial,  when  unfettered  by  this  most  odious  requirement  of 
modern  parsimony.  But,  in  comparing  this  church  with  those  few  only  which 
can  compete  with  it  on  fair  ground, — those  without  galleries, — we  must  still 
admit  its  transcendent  merit,  not  only  as  compared  with  those  of  its  own  style, 
but  also  with  those  of  the  purest  Gothic. . We  may  fairly  challenge  the  pro- 
duction of — 1st,  any  interior,  for  whatever  purpose  designed,  which  produces  an 
equal  effect  with  so  small  an  amount  of  ornament  ; and,  2ndly,  any  interior  which 
possesses  equal  beauty  with  as  much  fitness  for  the  purpose 
of  Protestant  worship.  The  height  being  no  greater  than  is 
necessary  for  breathing  room,  a division  into  Jvoe  avenues 
was  absolutely  necessary  to  obtain  any  thing  like  a majestic 
loftiness  of  proportion  ^ yet  the  number  of  columns  does  not 
impede  the  sound  and  sight  of  the  preacher,  because  this 
very  number  enables  them  to  be  made  smaller  than  the 
usual  space  between  the  heads  of  two  persons,  so  that  all 
the  congregation  can,  without  loss  of  space,  place  them- 
selves so  as  to  see  and  hear  ; for  the  pulpit  and  desk  are 
so  placed  that,  if  we  suppose  a lamp  lighted  in  either  of 
them,  the  shadows  of  no  two  columns  would  overlap  to  Plan  of  St  Stephen’s, 
form  a broader  shadow  than  that  of  a single  one.  But  Walbrook. 

not  only  are  the  sixteen  columns  so  distributed  as  to  answer  this  condition, 
(fulfilled  in  hardly  any  other  church  ;)  they  are  so  arranged  in  a plain  oblong 
room  as  entirely  to  conceal  its  vulgarity  by  introducing  the  various  beauties  (no 
where  else  combined)  of  the  Latin  cross,  Greek  cross,  square,  octagon,  and  circle. 
Observe,  too,  how  strictly  the  rectangular  forms,  expressing  stability,  are  kept 
below  ; up  io  the  entablature  all  is  right-angled  ; then  come  the  oblique  lines,  and 
the  elegant  circular  forms  above  all.  Wren  did  not  (as  we  remarked  in  Chap.  Ill  ) 
sufficiently  observe  this  principle  m some  of  his  wo>*ks,  but  here  its  complete  ob- 
servance so  improves  the  idea.  that,  though  borrowed  from  a Gothic  work,  it  could 
hardly  be  re-transferred  into  that  stjle  without  great  loss;  for  how  could  the 
combined  plans  (cross,  square,  octagon,  and  circle)  be  kept  in  that  style  so  equal- 
ly prominent  as  they  are  here  ? none  prevailing  over  and  disguising  the  others. 
The  cross,  and  especially  the  square,  would  hardly  appear  but  for  the  entablature, 
which  could  not  be  replaced  by  any  Gothic  feature  that  should  have  sufficient  im- 
portance without  appearing  clumsy  or  unduly  exaggerated.  Again,  that  style  ia 
so  much  better  adapted  to  polygonal  than  to  circular  plans,  that  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  keep  the  former  from  overpowering  the  latter. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


239 


when  his  first  design  for  his  great  work  was  obliged  to  be 
abandoned,  (it  is  said  fwith  tears,)  and  the  form  and  propor- 
tions of  a Gothic  cathedral  substituted,  he  recurred  to  this 
arrangement  as  the  chief  source  of  its  originality  and  gran- 
deur. Strange  to  say,  this  invention,  so  peculiarly  fitted  for 
Protestant  worship,  which  requires  an  ample  central  space, 
(not  lengthy  avenues,)  has  slept  again  for  a century  and  a 
half,  and  has  only  been  revived  in  the  elegant  church  just 
erected  at  Highbury.* 

* But  while  the  central  square  of  the  ordinary  Gothic  plan  is  elbowed  by  its 
piers,  the  central  octagon,  on  the  contrary,  is  rather  too  spacious  for  the  best 
artistic  effect,  and  at  St.  Paul’s  it  overpowers  the  other  parts,  making  the  four 
great  avenues  seem  narrow  and  low  : who  would  believe  that  they  ar.e  as  high 
as  those  of  Salisbury  ? A medium,  then,  between  the  octagon  and  the  square  is 
presented  by  the  early  pointed  cathedral  of  Sienna,  which  has  its  central  space  a 
hexagon , and,  Jhough  this  is  there  clumsily  arranged,  and  blocks  up  the  aisle  vis- 
tas, it  might  by  a little  change  have  left  all  six  avenues  open  and  uncontracted.  If 
the  middle  transept  avenue  occupied  the  western  half  of  the  hexagon,  passing 
through  two  of  its  sides.obliquely,  then  its  two  other  oblique  sides  might  each  have 
a semi-hexagon  described  on  it.  The  two  outer  sides  of  these  would  form  win- 
dows ; their  two  eastern  sides,  entrances  to  the  choir  aisles  ; and  their  two  re- 
maining sides  to  the  east  aisle  of  the  transept,  which  might  or  might  not  have  a 
western  aisle,  for  that  would  fall  without  the  hexagon.  The  breadths  between  the 
centres  of  the  columns,  (calling  that  of  the  nave  one,)  would  be  thus.  The  nave 
aisles,  one-half ; diameter  of  the  hexagon,  two  ; the  central  transept,  the  square 
root  of  three-  fourths  ; and  its  aisles,  one-half  of  the  square  root  of  three-fourths. 

The  capabilities  of  the  hexagon  and  dodecagon  have  been  greatly  neglected  in 
artistic  planning.  Their  union  with  square  forms  would  produce  many  beautiful 
and  useful  combinations  ; — useful  (that  is)  in  vaulted  and  other  genuine  perma- 
nent modes  of  construction  ; the  chief  artistic  advantage  of  which  modes  is,  that 
they  require  or  conduce  to  such  combinations  ; so  that,  perhaps,  ele  ;ant  planning 
can  hardly  be  expected,  without  a return  to  real  architecture.  Bartholomew 
draws  attention  to  the  beautiful  symmetry  of  a plan  to  which  the  vestibule  of  the 


240 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


III.  From  the  general  arrangement  of  the  Gothic  struc- 
tures, we  must  now  descend  to  their  details  ; first  premising 
that  these  appeared  in  a different  order  in  different  countries ; 
all  of  which  seem  to  have  advanced  by  different  paths  to- 
wards the  same  object,  which  they  all,  about  the  year  1300, 
completely  attained.  Not  till  then  did  their  several  styles 
arrive  at  the  nearest  coincidence  ; and  this  only  style,  common 
to  the  various  Gothic  nations,  is  that  which  all  have  agreed 
to  consider  the  complete  Gothic,  as  containing  all  the  essen- 
tial features  of  the  system,  viz.  : 1.  Universally  pointed  arch- 
ing, each  arch  being  composed  of  several  ribs  or  mouldings, 
so  arranged  that  the  innermost  or  narrowest  might  serve  as 
centering  on  which  to  turn  the  next,  on  which  a still  stronger 
was  turned,  &c.,  greatly  economizing  the  original  wooden 
centre;  2.  Ribbednaulting ; 3.  Apparent  buttresses;  4.  Pil- 
lar-clustering, with  reference  to  the  ribs,  each  rib  (whether 
of  the  vaulting  or  of  the  arches)  being  given  to  a particular 
shaft  ; 5.  Pinnacle-clustering ; 6.  Window  tracery,  with  sub- 
ordination (of  principal  and  minor  tracery  bars)  ; and, 
lastly,  Foliation,  or  foiling,  an  universal  though  seemingly 
non-essential  ornament.  These  seven  peculiarities  may  be 
considered  necessary  to  constitute  the  complete  Gothic  ; but 
some  very  beautiful  styles  arose  before  this  complete  deve- 
lopment, by  the  carrying  out  of  some  of  these  principles 
alone  ; and  wherever  any  one  of  them  (especially  pointed 
arching)  is  consistently  observed,  a beauty  is  derived  from 
this  consistency.  All  the  styles  which  completely  carry  out 
this  principle  come  under  the  general  term  Early  Pointed , 
and  are  further  distinguished  as  Early  English,  Early  French, 
&c.  ; the  word  ‘ Pointed’  being  understood.  Of  all  these, 
the  Early  English  may  be  esteemed  as  decidedly  the  most 

Temple  church  offers  a rude  approach,  viz.,  a dodecagon  with  its  covering  support- 
ed by  six  pillars  and  eighteen  arches,  all  of  equal  span,  dividing  the  whole  into  a 
central  hexagon,  surrounded  by  six  square  and  six  triangular  compartments,  aU 
equilateral,  and  making  the  thirty  lines  composing  the  plan  all  equal.  The  prece- 
ding example  of  hexagonal  planning  approaches  the  same  idea.  It  represents  the 
two  stories  of  the  royal  mausoleum  at  St.  Denys,  destroyed  in  the  first  French 
revolution. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


241 


pure  and  consistent.  It  is  not  confined  to  England,  but 
nearly  so  ; its  only  continental  localities  being  Brittany  and 
the  western  part  of  Normandy.  All  provinces  further  east 
exhibit  various  kinds  of  Early  Pointed,  different  from  ours  ; 
and  some  of  which  were  formerly  supposed  to  display  a more 
advanced  stage,  or  a nearer  approach  to  the  complete  Goth- 
ic, than  the  contemporary  English  examples.  Thus  Amiens 
cathedral,  begun  in  the  same  year  with  Salisbury,  certainly 
at  first  sight  appears,  with  its  large  four-light  windows  and 
varied  tracery,  much  more  Gothic  than  Salisbury,  where 
there  is  no  tracery,  or  only  the  first  rudimentary  effort  to- 
wards it.  But  on  a closer  inspection,  we  find  that  much  of 
the  Amiens  tracery  ( as  the  lower  nave  windows  and  the 
great  end  rose  windows ) consists  of  after-additions  : that 
the  original  windows  show  no  greater  advance  than  some  at 
Salisbury  (those  of  the  chapter-house)  ; that  the  remaining 
tracery  being  simply  composed  of  foiled  circles  or  foil-circles* 
packed  together,  is  no  more  than  what  the  Salisbury  build- 
ers may  be  supposed  quite  capable  of  designing,  had  they 
possessed  the  desire,  or  the  funds,  for  such  enrichment ; and, 
lastly,  that  if  the  tracery  is  more  complete  at  Amiens,  other 
features  (as  the  vaulting)  are  precisely  similar  in  both,  while 
others  are  decidedly  more  advanced  in  England.  This  is 
specially  the  case  with  the  arch-mouldings  and  pillars,  which, 
ev'en  in  older  buildings  than  Salisbury,  exhibit  a richness  of 
clustering  far  beyond  those  of  Amiens,  whose  groups  of  five 
only,  with  Corinthian  capitals  and  square  plinths  and  abaci, 
hardly  indicate  any  advance  from  the  Romanesque. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the  Gothic  features  might  have 
appeared  one  by  one  in  a different  order  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  that  while  one  nation  made  its  first  advances  by 

* The  nomenclature  of  Rickman  seems  on  this  point  more  concise  and  every 
way  preferable  to  that  of  Professor  Willis,  whose  foiled  arch  and  foliated  arch  cor- 
respond respectively  to  Rickman’s  foil  arch  and  foiled  arch,  which,  to  any  ob- 
server of  Gothic  buildings,  seem  hardly  to  require  explanation,  the  former  being 
where  the  whole  archivoltis  broken  into  several  curves,  and  the  latter  where  these 
are  only  inserted  within  a simple  curve. 

21 


242 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


means  of  the  pointed  arch  and  vault,  another  invented  tra- 
cery or  foiling,  a third  began  with  the  acute  spire  and  pin- 
nacle, a fourth  pushed  forward  the  subdividing  of  the  clus- 
ter-column and  many-shafted  jamb.  This  last  was  the  case 
with  England,  where  many  round-arched  examples  even  are 
so  Gothic  in  this  respect  that  they  present  as  many  vertical 
lines  as  any  building  : Winchester  tower,  of  the  eleventh 
century  is  an  example. 

Germany  boasts  of  the  first  examples  of  the  Gothic  arch, 
and  yet,  strangely  enough,  was  the  very  last  country  to 
abandon  the  round  arch,  which  continued  to  struggle  with 
the  pointed  forms,  and  render  the  “ Early  German,”  even 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  an  incongruous 
mixture,  unworthy  the  name  of  a style.  In  buildings  with 
complete  pointed  vaulting,  and  all  the  beautiful  varieties  of 
plan  and  outline  mentioned  above,  when  we  turn  to  the  win- 
dows, those  favorite  types  for  recognizing  the  Gothic  styles, 
instead  of  the  beautiful  grouped  lancets  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish, we  meet  with  such  forms  these  : 


12  3 4 


Early  German  Windows. 


The  foiled  forms  were  probably  introduced  from  the  East, 
(being  common  in  Arabic  architecture J and  though  the 
Germans  were  perhaps  the  first  to  use  these  forms  exten- 
sively, it  was  long  ere  they  learned  their  true  use,  not  to  be 
placed  alone,  but  as  adjuncts  to  graver  and  more  simple 
forms.  The  round  trefoil  arch  seems  in  Germany  to  have 
preceded  the  common  pointed  one,  and  in  grouping  two  or 
more  openings  under  one  arch,  they  aimed  at  variety  rather 
than  unity  in  their  forms.  Thus,  using  the  letters  T,  R,  P, 
and  *,  to  express  pointless  Trefoil , Round  arch,  Pointed  arch, 
and  foiled  circle,  we  find  such  combinations  as  these  : 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


243 


RRRRTTTPPP 

TTT  PPPRRPP  R T R * 

T T P P pjp  pjp  RRTT  RRTT 

But  not  till  later  than  in  France  or  England  do  we  find — 

P P P 

p * and  p p 

p p p p PPVP 

When,  indeed,  the  Germans  did  adopt  these  combinations, 
tracery  of  the  most  beautiful  kind  rapidly  followed,  and  in 
St.  Catherine,  at  Oppenheim,  and  the  glorious  design  for 
Cologne  (1248),  this  part  at  least  of  the  Gothic  system 
certainly  attained  its  fullest  development,  rather  sooner  in 
Germany  than  elsewhere.  So  rapid  was  this  development, 
that  there  is  hardly  an  example  in  that  country  of  Early 
Pointed  (St.  Elizabeth,  at  Marburg,  is  the  chief) ; for  no 
sooner  did  their  architecture  become  completely  pointed  than 
it  became  complete  Gothic. 

The  German  Gothicists  particularly  excelled  in  the  design 
of  spires  and  the  grouping  of  pinnacles,  which  they  carried 
to  a complexity  unknown  elsewhere.  This  feature  sprung 
from  the  simple  practice  of  finishing  a square  turret  with  an 
octagonal  or  conical  spire,  and  then  occupying  the  spandrils 
left  on  the  plan,  by  four  smaller  spires  ; a proceeding  as  old 
as  the  tombs  of  the  Etruscans. 

The  practice  of  window  tracery  everywhere  had  its  origin 
in  window-grouping,  placing  two  or  three  lancet  windows 
beside  each  other,  and  one  or  more  foil  or  rosette  windows 
above  and  between  their  heads,  in  order  to  fill  out  the  arched 
cell  of  the  vaulting,  which  then  necessarily  gave  the  whole 
group  an  arched  outline  ; and  this  was  indicated  externally 
by  a general  drip-mould  or  label.  It  then  became  desirable 
to  lighten  the  irregular  masses  left  between  the  perforations, 
and  this  was  done  by  piercing  these  masses,  or  spandrils,  and 
reducing  the  solid  frame  of  each  foil  or  rosette  to  an  equal 
thickness  all  round,  as  if  several  such  frames  or  rings  were 


244 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


packed  into  one  great  arched  opening,  which  henceforth  was 
regarded  as  one  window  instead  of  several. 

Each  country  has  had  its  successive  styles  of  tracery,  and 
each  has  begun  with  the  simple  subdivision  of  one  arch  into 
two,  and  these  sometimes  into  two  again,  filling  up  the  space 
between  the  heads  with  a circle,  as  at  Marburg  ; a foiled 
circle , as  at  Salisbury  chapter-house,  and  the  aisles  of  Cologne; 
or  finally  a foil-circle,  as  at  Westminster,  and  the  clerestory 
of  Cologne,  where  it  is  subfoiled  :*  thence  proceeding  to 
pack  together  such  forms  over  an  odd  number  of  lights,  to 
which  the  method  of  continual  bisection  would  not  apply  ; 
and  thus  the  first  kind,  which  may  be  called  packed  tracery, 
became  complete.  Deviations  from  the  principle  of  packing 
led  to  the  general  tracery,  absurdly  called  u geometrical y” 
for  all  Gothic  tracery  is  geometrical,  none  is  hand-drawn. 
This  beautiful,  purely  unmeaning  tracery  was  succeeded  in  all 
countries  by  the  flowing  loop  or  leaf,  and  then  by  the  peculiar 
national  After-Gothic.  Germany,  however,  as  it  had  been  the 
first  to  perfect,  was  also  the  last  to  abandon  the  “geo- 
metrical” tracery,  which  continued  there,  even  into  the 
fifteenth  century,  our  Perpendicular  Period.  England  and 
Prance,  however,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  abandoned  the 
unmeaning  for  the  flowing  leaf-tracery  ; and  this,  notwith- 
standing its  beauty,  had  hardly  time  to  show  itself  before  it 
was  superseded,  here  by  the  perpendicular,  and  in  Prance  by 
the  flamboyant.  Hence  it  happens  that  of  the  three  great 
classes  of  tracery,— “ geometrical,”  flowing,  and  perpendi- 
cular,— while  the  last  is,  as  every  one  knows,  by  far  the 
commonest  in  England,  the  most  abundant  kind  in  France 
is  flowing  ( flamboyant ),  and  in  Germany  geometrical,  i.  e., 
unmeaning. 

The  unmeaning  tracery  of  Germany  is  very  beautiful,  and 

* Subfoilmg  seems  a more  concise  and  clear  term  than  bifoUation , — employed 
by  Willis, — which  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  the  practice,  common  in  France,  of 
dividing  a flame-like  form  into  only  two  foils. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


245 


generally  par- 
takes of  the 
packed  charac- 
ter, the  follow- 
ing forms  occur- 
ing  very  abun- 
dantly The  Elements  of  German  Tracery. 

convex-sided  triangle  and  square  are  placed  in  all  positions 
indifferently,  and  the  frameless  trefoils  and  qnatrefoils  are 
often  formed  on  the  basis  of  these  figures  instead  of  the 
circle.  The  foilings  and  subfoilings,  formed  by  a very  nar- 
row but  deep  chamfered  member,  leave  their  little  spandrils, 
('called  eyes  by  our  workmen,)  entirely  open,  producing  the 
lightness  almost  of  metal-work.  Circular  windows, — in  Eng- 
land almost  confined  to  the  ends  of  the  transept, — were 
employed  abroad  wherever  a window  of  the  ordinary  form 
would  have  become  of  too  low  and  broad  a proportion.* 


* Tie  term  marigold  has  been  applied  to  those  circular  windows  in  which  radi- 
ating mullions  prevail,  and  rose  to  those  in  which  no  such  lines  are  found.  The 
preference  given  to  the  latter  may  be  traced  to  the  feeling  for  subordination  of  the 
classes  of  form.  A general  form  of  the  third  class  should  not  be  filled  up  with  de- 
tails of  the  second. 

The  finest  rose  windows,  perhaps,  are  at  St.  Ouen,  (Rouen,)  and  the  immense 
ones  at  Beauvais,  in  which  however,  there  is  not  enough  subordination  of  different 
c asses  of  mullions.  The  finest  of  the  radiating  sort  are  at  S^rasburg,  Westminster, 
and  the  south  front  of 
Amiens,  where  a pleas- 
ing variety  is  produced 
by  the  lines  radiating 
from  points  a little  dis- 
tant from  the  centre,  so 
as  to  give  alternately  a few  radiating  and  a few  parallel  mullions.  The  figure  a , 
called  'pentalpha,  is  very  common  in  French  circular  window  tracery  ; and  they 
followed  the  example  of  flowers  in  founding  their  division,  chiefly  on  the  numbers 
3 and  5 those  divisible  by  4 being  comparatively  rare.  The  term  wheel,  applied 
indiscriminately  to  all  round  windows,  would  be  better  restricted  to  those  called 
in  France  roses  tournantes,  which  differ  from  ordinary  roses  in  having  the  similar 
sectors  of  the  pattern  not  alternately  reversed,  but  all  turned  the  same  way,  which 
gives  the  idea  of  rotation.  There  are  many  varieties  of  them,  though  none  contain 
more  than  six  or  eight  panels,  there  being  none  above  the  smallest  scale,  probably 
from  a feeling  of  the  instability  given  by  their  rotatory  expression.  Hence  the  use 
of  a large  and  complex  one,  as  a principal  and  central  feature,  in  a church  lately 
finished  at  Islington,  must  be  considered  in  very  questionable  taste. 


246 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


When  the  Gothic  system  had  attained  its  culmination,  the 
chief  differences  were  that  tracery,  pillar-clustering,  fand 
perhaps  we  may  add,  moulding ,)  were  best  developed  in 
England  ; spire  design  and  pinnacle-clustering  in  Germany  ; 
window  tracery  in  France  ; and  foliation  in  the  Netherlands 
and  Spain,  ( where  it  took  an  extraordinary  richness  and 
complexity  from  the  Arabs,  its  probable  inventors. ) All  these, 
however,  were  rather  differences  of  degree  than  of  kind,  and 
the  style  might  be  said  to  be  now  every  where  the  same. 

The  Gothic,  then,  had  in  the  fourteenth  century  become 
a complete  system,  as  consistent  in  its  principles  as  the 
architecture  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  to  which  it  was  yet  in 
many  respects  directly  opposite  ; and  it  is  truly  surprising  to 
trace  how  by  a continued  steady  progress  in  one  constant 
direction,  an  originally  perfect  style  was,  through  various 
stages  of  decline  and  even  deepest  barbarism,  gradually  con- 
verted, after  almost  twenty  centuries,  into  another  style  as 
perfect  as  the  first,  yet  opposite  in  many  of  its  principles. 

This  opposition  appears  stronger,  the  more  perfect  are  the 
two  varieties  of  Greek  and  Gothic  which  we  compare.  The 
better  each  may  be  of  its  kind,  the  more  perfect  is  the  con- 
trast, and  the  chief  points  of  contrast  are  the  following  : 

In  the  pure  Greek,  an  arch  was  inadmissible  ; in  the  pure 
Gothic,  a lintel  or  beam  is  equally  inadmissible.  In  imitative 
Greek,  all  arches  have  to  be  disguised  as  beams  ; in  imitative 
Gothic,  all  beams  had  to  be  disguised  as  arches. 

In  the  former,  the  props  required  to  confine  the  arches 
must  be  concealed  or  disguised  ; in  the  latter,  props  must 
appear,  whether  they  are  wanted  or  not. 

The  severe  unity  of  the  Greek  will  not  admit  of  scenery, 
i.  e.,  decoration  behind  decoration.  The  wall  behind  a 
colonnade  was  plain,  not  even  windows  being  admissible 
there.  The  Romans  advanced  a step  from  this,  allowing  two 
systems  of  decoration  together,  the  front  system  of  columns 
and  entablature,  the  hinder  of  arches  or  windows.  The 
Romanesque  builders  carried  this  further,  and  in  their  latest 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


24t 


works  placed  arches  behind  arches  in  three  or  more  depths. 
This  was  approaching  the  Gothic,  in  which  style  (and  in  which 
alone)  the  planes  of  decoration  are  unlimited  as  to  number. 

Lastly,  looking  at  the  general  character,  the  expression  of 
the  Greek  temple  is  that  of  majestic  repose ; that  of  the 
Gothic  is  aspiring  flight , or  at  least  growth.  The  first  arises 
from  the  absence  or  non-perception  of  oblique  pressures. 
Everything  gravitates  straight  downwards,  and  its  weight 
seems  somehow  to  be’  rendered  peculiarly  visible.  But  the 
Gothic  arches  and  gables,  the  tapering  buttresses,  the  sprout- 
ing crockets  and  bud-like  finials,  the  bristling  pinnacles  and 
spires,  all  seem  shooting  upwards,  and  by  their  terminating 
all  at  different  heights,  seem  aiming  higher  and  higher  ; 
while  internally  the  same  character  is  preserved  by  arch  above 
arch  and  canopy  above  canopy,  by  the  palm-like  combination 
of  shaft  and  vaulting  ribs,  and  lastly,  by  the  great  prepon- 
derance of  vertical  lines  over  horizontal  ones,  both  in  number 
and  ( perspective ) length. 

This  last  circumstance  has>  from  its  simplicity,  been  too 
exclusively  dwelt  upon,  and  even  regarded  by  some  as  the 
Gothic  principle,  a distinction  which  it  does  not  merit,  for 
the  aspiring  character  cannot  be  imparted  by  this  alone  ; and 
on  the  other  hand,  this  character  is  possessed  in  the  highest 
perfection  by  many  buildings  which  have  (in  the  exterior  at 
least ) more  numerous  and  extensive  horizontal  lines  than 
vertical  ones  fas  is  the  case  with  Salisbury),  nor  do  the  nearly 
vertical  bear  a greater  proportion  to  the  horizontal  than  in 
Grecian  buildings,  in  which,  owing  to  the  diminution  of  the 
columns,  &c.,  hardly  any  truly  vertical  lines  occur. 

Rickman,  however,  made  the  important  observation,  that 
in  the  complete  Gothic,  every  horizontal  line  meeting  a vertical 
one,  either  terminates  or  changes  its  direction,  while  the  ver- 
tical continues  its  course  unaltered.  In  the  pure  Greek 
precisely  the  reverse  takes  place  ; all  vertical  lines  are  stoped 
by  the  first  horizontal  one  they  meet,  while  the  horizontal 
continue  f generally  without  a bend ) from  corner  to  corner 


248 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


of  the  building.  The  difference,  therefore,  consists  not  so  much 
in  the  number  or  extent  of  horizontal  lines,  as  in  the  fact  of 
their  being  unbroken  in  the  Greek,  and  frequently  broken  in 
the  Gothic.  In  both  they  are  equally  necessary  to  preserve 
the  unity  of  the  building,  by  tying  all  its  parts  together. 
The  neglect  of  this,  arising  from  the  misapprehension  and 
abuse  of  the  “ vertical  principle,”  as  it  is  called,  has  led  in 
modern  times  to  the  erection  of  churches  so  totally  destitute 
of  unity,  as  to  resemble  a group  of  chapels  of  various  heights 
stuck  together.  That  this  is  not  Gothic  will  appear  by  exam- 
ining those  Gothic  structures  (few  indeed  in  number ) which 
have  been  finished  in  one  lifetime,  or  after  one  design,  and  es- 
caped the  unscrupulous  alterations  by  which  so  many  grand 
edifices  have  been  reduced  to  patchwork.  Such  buildings  are 
the  cathedrals  of  Salisbury,  Rheims,  Milan,  Cologne,  St.  Ouen 
at  Rouen,  and  the  celebrated  chapels  at  Cambridge,  Windsor, 
and  W estminster.  These  include  all  the  style,  and  the  utmost 
degrees  of  verticality,  yet  all  possess  perfectly  that  unity 
which  arises  from  correspondence  of  horizontal  divisions  and 
features  all  round  the  building,  and  is  as  necessary  in  this 
style  as  in  any  other,  to  distinguish  a great  building  from  a 
group  of  little  ones. 

But  the  aspiring  principle  was  liable  to  abuse  by  its  inven- 
tors in  the  palmy  days  of  Gothic  art,  as  well  as  by  their 
imitators  now,  though  in  a different  manner.  No  sooner  was 
this  beautiful  tendency  of  the  style  observed,  than  if  seems 
to  have  become  the  main  object  of  Gothic  design  to  increase 
and  push  to  the  utmost  this  expression  so  appropriate  to  a 
religious  edifice.  It  was  a fine  idea  to  make  everything  in 
God’s  house  point  heavenward  ; but  to  the  various  methods 
resorted  to  in  different  countries  for  exaggerating  this  ex- 
pression, we  must  partly  refer  the  gradual  decline  and  fall 
of  this  wonderful  style,  which  proceeded  by  different  steps  in 
each  country,  giving  rise  to  what  Professor  Willis  has  happily 
named  the  different  forms  of  After- Got  hie.  The  Germans 
seized  on  the  idea  of  growth , and  the  huding  and  sprouting 


OF  architecture. 


249 


expression  ; but  perhaps  the  French  were  most  successful  in 
increasing  the  aspiring  expression  : by  a slight  change  in  the 
prevailing  forms  of  the  flowing  tracery,  they  converted  the 
loops  or  leaves  into  flame-like  forms,  till  the  Flamboyant 
buildings,  appeared  not  vegetating,  as  in  Germany,  but 
Hazing  from  the  foundation  to  the  bristling  finials.  The 
difference  between  this  style  of  tracey  and  our  own  flowing 
style  ( exemplified  in  the  west  window  at  York),  is,  that  while 
the  upper  ends  of  our  loops  or  leaves  are  round  or  simply 
pointed,  i.  e.,  with  finite  angles , the  upper  ends  in  France 
terminate,  like  the  lower,  in  angles  of  contact  (those  formed 
by  two  curves  that  have  a common  tangent).  It  was 
necessary  to  the  leafy  effect  that  the  lower  angles  should  be 


English  leaf- tracery.  French  flamboyant  tracery. 

tangential  ; but  to  the  flame-like  effect,  that  the  upper  ones 
should  be  so,  even  if  the  lower  were  finite  ; and  hence  some 
examples  of  flamboyant  tracery,  turned  upside  down,  form  a 
kind  of  leaf-tracery. 

Our  countrymen,  however,  adopted  a method  which  was 
less  conducive  to  the  aspiring  expression,  and  which  con- 
ducted them  to  a style  less  rich  and  certainly  less  varied 
than  any  of  the  other  After-Gothics. 

Erroneously  supposing  that  an  abun- 
dance of  vertical  lines  would  increase 
this  character,  they  were  led  to  con- 
vert all  the  flowing  lines  of  the  window 
tracery  into  vertical  ones,  to  omit  the 
capitals  of  nearly  all  the  smaller  shafts 


250 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


or  shaftlets,  thus  converting  what  had  been  blank  arcades 
into  mere  panels,  and  then  to  multiply,  diminish,  and  extend 
these  panels  and  endless  repetition  of  vertical  lines,  over 
every  part  of  the  interior,  and,  in  florid  buildings,  even  of 
the  exterior. 

But  the  “ Perpendicular  Style  ” may  also  have  arisen  from 
that  principle  of  constructive  unity , on  which  we  have  so  much 
insisted,  and  according  to  which  a style  is  pure  and  perfect 
in  proportion  to  the  exclusiveness  with  which  a certain  mode 
of  construction  pervades,  or  appears  to  pervade,  every  fea- 
ture, from  the  greatest  to  the  least.  In  Gothic  architecture 
this  mode  of  construction  is  arching , in  other  words  the  sub- 
jecting materials  to  compression  alone,  never  to  tension  or  to 
cross-strain.  Hence  the  perfection  of  this  style  requires  that 
no  member,  however  short  or  strong,  should  be  treated,  or 
appear  to  be  treated,  as  a beam.  All  materials  must  appear 
(as  far  as  the  eye  can  judge ) to  be  not  only  in  equilibrium, 
but  in  such  equilibrium  as  would  apply  to  flexible  as  well  as 
rigid  bodies.  Hence  the  apparent  flexibility  which  every 
one  notices  in  fine  Gothic  architecture  ; the  stone  is  treated 
as  though  it  were  flexible,  i.  e.}  no  dependence  is  placed  on 
its  rigidity,  and  therefore  it  appears  to  have  none.  Now,  in 
applying  this  to  the  chief  kinds  of  tracery,  we  must  remember 
that  the  statical  conditions  of  a flexible  Gothic  arch  require 
a weight  concentrated  on  its  vertex,  but  will  not  admit  of 
any  concentration  of  weight  on  any  other  point.  But  in  the 
“ Geometrical  ” tracery,  the  arches  over  the  lights  receive 
generally  no  pressures  on  their  points,  but  concentrated 
pressures  on  certain  parts  of  their  haunches,  viz.,  where  they 
touch  the  circles  or  rosettes  that  seem  packed  into  the  win- 
dow-head. Such  tracery,  formed  of  a flexible  substance, 
could  not  keep  its  form.  The  flowing  loop-tracery  is  an 
improvement  on  this,  and  the  flamboyant  still  more  so  ; but 
in  the  Perpendicular  Style  alone  do  we  find  a complete 
recognition  of  the  principle  that  the  Gothic  arch  should  be 
loaded  only  on  its  vertex.  In  this  style  alone  do  we  find 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


251 


tracery  which,  if  converted  into  a flexible  material,  would 
undergo  no  change  of  form. 

That  the  perpendicular  tracery  was  used  from  this  feeling 
rather  than  from  false  taste,  will  appear  from  that  great 
type  of  perpendicularity,  Henry  the  Seventh’s  chapel,  in 
which,  though  the  principle  thoroughly  pervades  every  other 
part,  it  is  not  to  be  traced  in  the  flying  buttresses  ; for  here 
statical  principles  rather  required  the  voiding  to  be  effected 
by  circles  (as  in  the  spandrils  of  the  Pont-y-Prydd  and  iron 
bridges),  and  accordingly  this  is  done.  How  different  is  the 
constructive  consistency  here  shown,  from  the  want  of  it  in 
certain  earlier  French  works,  the  cathedral  of  Orleans,  for 
instance,  where  the  window-heads  are  packed  with  rings  and 
rosettes,  while  the  flying  buttresses  are  pierced  with  perpen- 
dicular archlets,  concentrating  all  their  weight  on  certain 
•points  of  the  lower  curve,  against  all  statical  propriety. 

But  the  grand  error  of  the  “ Perpendicular  ” was  its  intro- 
duction of  a graver  class  of  form  in  details  than  prevailed  m 
main  features. 

Another  fault  peculiar  to  the  decline  of  the  system  in 
England  sprung  from  the  reduction  of  paneling  (originally 
an  excellent  constructive  principle,  for  the  economy  of  ma- 
terial,) to  a source  of  ornament  merely.  Common  sense 
tells  us  that  a panel  is  a method  of  diminishing  bulk  or 
weight  without  diminishing  superficial  extent,  and  is  there- 
fore only  applicable  to  parts  whose  office  depends  on  their 
extent — whose  duty  is  to  enclose  or  fill  up  spaces  ; but  never 
to  those  which  have  to  support.  Thus  the  spandrils  of  a 
bridge  are  proper  places  for  panelifig,  but  never  its  piers. 
The  application  of  paneling,  however,  to  supports  was  left 
to  the  very  latest  examples  of  Gothic  degradation  ; but  for 
a long  time  previously,  the  principle  was  abused  in  the  fan- 
tracery  vaulting,  whose  ribbing  and  paneling  was  not  con- 
structive, but  only  decorative  ; the  joints  occuring  indis- 
criminately in  the  centre  of  a panel,  or  the  centre  of  a rib. 

Other  abuses  overran  the  style  in  different  countries, 


252 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 

many  (but  not  all ) of  which  may  be  referred  to  the  change 
admirably  described  by  Ruskin,  as  occuring  everywhere  at 
the  culmination  of  the  style,  viz,,  the  the  transference  of  atten- 
tion from  the  masses  (of  light  or  shade)  to  the  lines. 

In  Germany  the  chief  vice  was  interpenetration,  or  the 
making  mouldings  appear  to  pass  through  each  other,  instead 
of  stopping  each  other.*  This  was  at  length  carried  to  such 
extent,  that  no  member  could  stop  against  another,  but 
must  seem  to  run  through  and  come  out  on  the  other  side, 
even  though  it  were  in  consequence  obliged  to  be  cut  off 
abruptly  in  the  air,  giving  rise  to  crossed  foiling , and  what 
has  been  called  stump- tracery.  Moreover,  that  originally 
beautiful  and  useful  member,  the  ogive  crocketed  hood,  be- 
came to  the  German  designers,  what  the  panel  was  to  the 
English.  It  overgrew  everything  else,  till  the  buildings  be- 
came covered  with  tracery,  not  of  panels  but  of  intersecting 
hoods,  which,  not  confined  to  their  three  purely  Gothic 
forms,  the  rectilinear,  the  concave-sided,  and  the  reflexed  or 
ogive,  now  ran  into  all  imaginable  shapes,  which,  interpene- 
trating in  all  directions,  gave  the  idea  of  entwined  plants, 
an  effect  increased  by  the  innumerable  crockets. 

In  France,  the  Gothic,  in  its  flamboyant  form,  seems  to 
have  maintained  a certain  degree  of  purity  longer  than  any 
where  else,  for  the  transept-fronts  of  Beauvais,  built  in 
1555,  exhibit  hardly  any  instances  of  Italianizing  tendency. 
Strongly  marked  horizontal  cornices,  however,  begin  to  stop 
the  vertical  lines,  and  the  latest  French  buildings  free  from 
Italian  details,  display  a style  called  Burgundian,  with  the 
same  general  tendencies  as  the  English  Tudor,  but  far  less 
skilfully  carried  out;  the  arches  being  not  only  depressed  but 
pointless. 

Everywhere  the  finishing  stroke  was  given  to  expiring 
Gothicity  by  the  return  to  beam  and  lintel  construction,  and 

* Perhaps  this  arose  from  a fancy  to  repeat  and  exhibit  everywhere  the  symbol 
of  the  cross.  It  is  known  that  some  monkish  writers  of  that  age  amused  them- 
selves with  finding  crosses  in  every  object  of  nature. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


253 


the  attempts  to  disguise  these  straight  horizontal  forms  into 
the  semblance  of  depressed  arches.  The  loss  of  constructive 
unity,  the  return  to  universally  mixed  construction,  (as  in  the 
Ante-Gothic  ages,)  completed  the  downfall  of  this,  as  it  had 
before  completed  the  downfall  of  the  antique  system. 

In  one  respect,  however,  the  fall  of  the  Gothic  architecture 
perhaps  differed  from  that  of  the  Classic,  and  was  more 
complete.  It  was  a fall  out  of  which  nothing  could  be 
expected  to  arise, — a fall  not  of  a styl^  or  system  merely, 
but  in  a certain  sense,  of  the  entire  art.  It  was  the  end  of 
a progress  in  one  constant  direction,  which  had  run  through 
the  whole  history  of  European  architecture,  quite  indepen- 
dently of  the  changes  from  style  to  style — unaffected  by  the 
Romanesque  debasement  of  the  art  or  its  Gothic  renovation. 
This  was  the  progress  from  magnitude  to  multitude.  Though 
twice  attaining  constructive  and  decorative  truth,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  apparatus  of  the  art,  in  its  second  complete 
phase,  consisted  of  diminished  and  multiplied  derivatives  from 
the  chief  structural  members  of  its  first  phase.  The  process 
could  be  carried  no  further  : complication  had  reached  its 
limit, — in  the  finite  divisibility  of  the  material, — in  the  finite 
capacity  of  man, — and  the  finishers  of  those  piles  should 
have  inscribed  on  them,  11  Architecture  is  finished ; henceforth 
be  content  to  copy” 

The  Gothic  system  fell  by  its  own  inherent  principles  of 
decay,  and  left  the  field  vacant  before  the  perceived  absence 
of  true  architecture  rendered  the  importation  of  a new  system 
necessary.  Imitations  of  the  grotesque  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against  being  classed  with  the  pure  Gothic. 

Post-Gothic  Architecture. — Coeval  with  the  last  great 
transition  of  human  society : from  the  invention  of  printing 
dates  the  fall  of  Gothic  art. 

The  present  Florentine  is  the  Doric  style  of  modern  pala- 
tial or  domestic  architecture. 

Venice,  the  luxurious  mistress  of  the  Adriatic,  like  its  pro- 
22 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


254 

type  the  Corinthian  of  old,  has  superseded  its  rivals,  having 
been  till  within  the  last  few  years  the  general  model  to  the 
architecture  of  all  trans-alpine  Europe.  Its  aim  was  splen- 
dor, variety,  luxury  and  ornament.  Intermediate  between 
these  two  schools  arose  the  modern  Roman. 

The  English  school  was  founded  on  the  Venetian. 

In  Florence,  mere  eye-pleasure  is  foregone,  variety  denied, 
monotony  endured  for  the  sake  of  grandeur,  and  the  higher 
objects  of  the  art. 

In  Venice,  the  higher  excellences  are  sacrificed  to  the 
lower  ; true  grandeur,  to  pompous  effect ; intellectual  sense 
of  fitness,  to  mere  eumorphic  beauty  ; the  mind,  to  the  eye  ; 
self-concealing  art,  to  self-displaying  art. 

To  describe  the  schools  more  technically,  or  with  regard 
to  rules  rather  than  principles, — the  Florentine  is  mostly  as- 
tylar,  the  style  of  fenestration  and  rustic  groins  ; the  Ro- 
man the  style  of  pilasters  ; the  Venetian,  that  of  columns. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


255 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 


Among  the  few,  then,  that  enlist  on  the  side  of  Truth,  and 
resolutely  engage  in  this  perpetual  conflict  against  false, 
against  popular,  against  national  taste,  it  must  ever  be  borne 
in  mind,  first,  that  there  is  no  substitute  for  thought.  All  the 
ponderous  tomes  of  examples,  specimens,  &c.,  from  Adams 
and  Stuart  downwards,  have  been  intended,  or  received,  for 
this  purpose  ; and,  as  such , are  not  only  totally  worthless, 
but  extremely  prejudicial  ; though  invaluable  as  materials 
for  analysis,  free  criticism,  and  search  into  principles, — for 
which  purposes  they  have  never  yet  been  used. 

Nothing  can  increase  the  value  of  a design , which  does  not  in- 
crease the  labor  of  the  designer , (by  designer  I do  not  mean 
draughtsman. ) Every  reference  to  precedent  should  do  this , and 
will  do  so  with  every  true  artist.  But  the  false  artist  refers  to 
precedent,  to  save  himself  trouble  ; that  is,  to  cheat  his  em- 
ployers, by  diminishing  the  value  of  his  work,  without  di- 
minishing its  apparent  value. 

II.  Novelty -hunting,  and  the  false  use  of  precedent,  are 
the  Scylla  and  Charybdis  between  which,  the  many,  and  the 
architects  of  the  many,  are  forever  destined  to  be  wrecked. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  fall  into  both  at  once. 

That  nothing  is  beautiful  which  is  without  motive,  most 
of  the  thinking  will  admit  ; yet  it  is  necessary  to  add,  that 
novelty  and  antiquity  are  no  admissible  motives.  But  though 
age  affords  no  reason  whatever  for  the  adoption  of  any  thing, 
it  gives  every  reason  for  its  examination  and  study. 

III.  We  cannot  too  strongly  instil  into  the  reader,  that 
while  novelty  is  in  itself  neither  a beauty  nor  a fault,  but  to- 
tally immaterial, — novelty  sought  for  its  own  sake  is  the  des- 
truction of  art.  The  end  of  art  is  truth.  The  instant  it 
proposes  any  other  aim,  (be  it  novelty , or  to  “ catch  the 


256 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


spirit”  of  a particular  time  or  place,  i.  e.,  mimicry , or  any 
other  fancy  J it  ceases  to  be  art  ; and  what  is  not  art,  is  not 
architecture.  Aim  at  catching  the  spirit  of  all  true  archi- 
tecture, not  that  of  any  one  style, — still  less,  of  a notorious- 
ly false  style. 

IY.  If,  as  we  have  also  endeavored  to  instil,  the  main 
distinction  between  artists  is,  that  some  strive  to  put  as 
much  thought  as  possible  into  a given  work,  and  others  to 
do  that  work  with  as  little  thought  as  possible, — then,  if 
one  of  these  principles  be  art,  it  follows  that  the  other  is  not 
merely  its  absence,  but  its  opposite , — not  a mere  negation, 
but  an  active  principle,  for  which,  finding  no  name  used,  I 
would  propose  the  term  anti-art* 

A very  small  portion  of  anti-art  peeping  out,  is  enough  to 
destroy  all  our  pleasure  in  a work  of  art.  Witness  the  pots 
and  cowls  that  finish  the  sky-line  of  most  of  our  piles  of 
architecture.  A foreigner  would  think  this  nation  bankrupt, 
to  judge  by  the  innumerable  public  buildings  standing  unfi- 
nished, covered  with  these  hideous  make-shifts. 

Y.  The  highest  beauty  is  fitness.  Therefore,  when  you 
see  a thing  highly  beautiful,  beware  of  copying  it  till  after 
mature  study  ; for  the  more  beautiful  ( i . e.,  the  fitter)  it 
may  be  in  its  situation,  the  less  likely  to  be  fit  ( i . e.7  beauti- 
ful) in  any  other. 

Those  who  wonder  why  architects  often  condemn  what 
other  persons  of  good  taste  admire,  seem  to  forget  that  the 
latter  cannot  distinguish  what  belongs  to  the  designer,  from 
what  belongs  to  the  theory  of  his  art  as  he  found  it,  and 

* Here  is  the  simplest  instance  I can  find,  which  will  display  the  two  principles. 
The  reader  knows  the  old  established  way  of  cutting  the  stones  of  an  arch  in  rusti- 
cated masonry,  each  stone  presenting  a five-sided  face:  well, two  other  modes  have 
lately  been  adopted,  each  making  the  faces  of  the  stones  four-sided.  In  one,  the 
voussoirs  are  alternately  long  and  short,  like  battlements  ; in  the  other,  their  ex- 
trados  is  cut  to  a regular  curve.  Persons  of  taste,  however,  prefer  the  old  method, 
but  without  knowing  why.  Now  I will  tell  you  why.  Just  sketch  the  three  on 
paper,  and  you  will  perceive  that  the  old  is  by  far  the  most  troublesome  to  design, 
yet  gives  the  least  work  to  the  mason;  having  fewest  oblique  joints.  Thought  is 
expended  to  save  manual  labor.  But  in  both  the  new  modes,  mental  labor  is  saved 
at  the  expense  of  the  manual-  The  first  is  ow#,  the  others  aiilfi-d/rt. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


251 


which  not  only  the  true  artist  learns,  but  even  the  most  ig- 
norant falls  into , as  we  inevitably  fall  into  the  habits  of 
those  around  us.  But  the  eye  of  an  architect  has  acquired 
the  power  of  instantly  separating  these  two  parts  of  the  de- 
sign, setting  aside  the  one  as  a mere  matter  of  routine,  but 
singling  out  and  fixing  itself  on  whatever  is  the  designer's 
own.  Now,  if  we  ‘perceive  that  all  the  beauty, — all  the 
truth  in  the  building,  belongs  to  the  former  portion  ; that 
whatever  belongs  to  the  designer,  whatever  is  new,— is  false, 
— is  adopted  either  for  novelty,  or  to  save  thought,  or  for 
affectation,  or  for  anti-art,  we  condemn  the  work,  and  just- 
ly : for  what  avails  it  to  have  been  correct  as  far  as  rules 
and  precedent  would  apply,  if  wherever  he  has  acted  for  him- 
self he  has  sinned  ? What  avails  it  to  have  repeated  truly 
the  990  words  for  which  he  could  find  authority,  if  the  10 
which  he  was  obliged  to  add  are  all  false  ? It  is  these  ten 
alone  that  show  whether  he  is  an  artist  or  not  ; and  these 
things,  though  small,  and  escaping  the  casual  glance  of  the 
public,  glare  to  our  eyes  as  huge  blots,  totally  defacing  the 
routine  beauty  ; though  that  may  form  the  major  portion  of 
the  work,  and  may  cause  the  uninformed  to  regard  it  as 
pleasing  on  the  whole. 

Beware  of  mistaking  this  on  the  whole , for  as  a whole.  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  observes,  that  “the  totally  ignorant  be- 
holder, like  the  ignorant  artist,  cannot  comprehend  a whole, 
nor  even  what  it  means.’-’  When  such  speak  of  the  effect 
as  a whole , they  mean  on  the  whole.  The  effect  to  them  is 
pleasing,  if  it  contain  a majority  of  pleasing  parts. 

Such  are  now  the  most  influential  judges  of  art.  By  a 
singular  inconsistency,  those  who  constantly  profess  to  be  no 
judges , are  really  the  style-formers.  They  say,  “We  know 
nothing  of  the  art,  but  we  know  what  pleases  us.”  But 
what  does  this  assume  ? Plainly,  that  the  art  is  intended  to 
please  them.  This  is  the  grand  art-destroying  error.  No 
true  art  is,  or  ever  was,  meant  to  please  the  many,  but  to 
teach  them  when  to  be  pleased. 


258 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


In  limiting,  we  fear,  thq  number  of  true  artists,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  one  may  be  a true  'artist  without  being 
a master,  or  any  thing  like  one.  The  difference  is  this : most 
buildings  are  so  transparent,  that  we  look  at  their  front,  and 
see  through  to  the  back  of  the  designer’s  mind.  According 
to  the  proportions  we  see  of  thought-spending  or  thought-sav- 
ing spirit,  so  we  admire  or  condemn  ; and  when  we  can  dis- 
cern no  self-sparing,  no  anti-art,  we  pronounce  the  work 
purely  elegant ; but  not  necessarily  masterly.  The  work  of  a 
master  is  equally  or  even  more  transparent  ; but  though  the 
eye  pierce  deeper,  and  perhaps  find  more  faults,  it  cannot 
reach  the  bottom.  Admire  as  much  as  we  may,  we  perceive 
that  there  is  more  beyond,  left  unadmired. 

The  few  principles  which  we  have  endeavored  to  elicit  or 
explain  in  this  volume,  have  been  arranged  in  an  upward 
progression,  from  narrow  and  particular,  to  wider  and  more 
general  ones.  We  first  tried  to  distinguish  the  different 
grades  of  beauty  in  building,  and  assign  them  their  true  re- 
lative ranks.  Thus  color,  whose  laws  of  harmony  are  purely 
physical,  came  before  uniformity,  which  appears  sometimes 
addressed  to  the  sense,  and  sometimes  to  the  mind.  Beauty 
of  outline,  being  wholly  addressed  to  the  mind,  though  per- 
haps to  its  lowest  faculties,  came  next,  and  was  traced  to 
the  union  of  unity  and  variety,  which  union  is  to  be  effected 
in  two  ways, — by  gradation,  and  by  contrast.  Proceeding, 
then,  from  unmeaning  beauty  to  that  which  is  distinguishable 
into  classes,  we  showed  that  its  two  opposite  characters — 
grandeur  and  elegance, — depended  on  the  comparative  preva- 
lence of  these  two  principles — contrast  and  gradation.  Ac- 
cording to  the  relative  proportions  of  these,  we  divided  all 
possible  forms  into  five  classes,  and  insisted  on  the  obser- 
vance of  the  natural  disposition  and  subordination  of  these 
classes  one  to  another,  as  practised  in  all  the  pure  and  ad- 
mired styles.  This  we  regard  as  the  most  important  princi- 
ple in  mere  geometric  design,  apart  from  constructive  and 
other  fitness. 


OF  ARCHITECTURE 


259 


We  then  considered  the  two  cognate  qualities  of  sublimity 
and  picturesqueness,  referring  the  former  chiefly  to,  1.  The 
prevalence  of  contrast,  and  rarity  or  absence  of  gradation  ; 

2.  The  expression  of  mechanical  power  in  the  construction  ; 

3.  The  principle  by  painters  called  breadth,  i.  e.,  the  collection 
of  every  thing  or  quality  into  great  unbroken  accumulations  ; 

4.  A quality  we  called  depth,  the  reverse  of  flatness  or  shal- 
lowness. On  the  difficult  subject  of  picturesqueness,  we  sim- 
ply gave  the  notions  of  Ruskin,  that  it  arises  from  the  same 
qualities  that  would  be  sublime  in  the  subject  itself,  attach- 
ing themselves  not  to  its  essence,  but  to  some  accident,  as 
light  and  shade,  color,  situation,  state  of  decay,  &c. 

We  next  considered  how  nature  should  be  imitated,  with 
generalization,  i.  e.,  by  taking  all  possible  objects  that  have 
the  character  we  want  to  give,  extracting  all  that  they  have 
in  common,  and  rejecting  what  is  peculiar  to  each.  We  in- 
sisted on  the  same  method  as  necessary  in  the  imitation  of 
masters,  styles,  and  manners  ; and  endeavored  to  distinguish 
between  true  and  false  imitation,  or  copyism.  Another  kind 
of  false  imitation,  viz.,  deception,  was  then  considered  ; the 
grievous  error  of  regarding  it  as  an  object  of  art,  the  total 
destruction  thereby  fallen  on  popular  art,  and  the  great 
caution  necessary  for  the  thoughtful,  who  would  escape  this 
defilement.  Connected  with  this,  we  endeavor  to  enforce 
constructive  truth , or  the  non-disguise  of  the  real  statical  prin- 
ciples of  the  construction  ; and  lastly  (a  principle  hitherto 
totally  neglected  by  the  moderns,)  constructive  unity,  or  the 
consistent  adherence  to  one  statical  method  throughout  a 
building. 

The  two  short  reviews  of  the  “ pure  styles”  afford  the 
reader  particular  instances  and  modifications  of  these  prin- 
ciples, and  perhaps  of  some  higher  ones. 

Pure  architecture,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  in 
the  combination  of  constructive  and  decorative  Truth,  in 
their  widest  sense,  or  of  constructive  and  decorative  Unity. 

This  union  was  anciently  sought  by  all  nations, — attained 


260 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


by  the  Greeks  alone, — dissolved  by  the  Roman  introduction 
of  the  arch, — gradually  lost  by  the  increasing  admixture  of 
that  constructive  principle, — restored  by  its  total  adoption, 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  apparent  construction, — and  a 
second  time  lost  by  the  increase  of  tensile  construction  and 
the  indiscriminate  mixture  of  all  constructive  methods. 

Since  this  second  degradation  of  the  art,  however,  many 
great  artists  have  lived,  especially  in  Italy,  a country  which 
has  never  attained  a system  of  constructive  unity.  For,  ex- 
cept the  pseudo-Greek  buildings  of  the  empire,  and  the 
pseudo-Gothic  pile  of  Milan  cathedral,  with  a few  other 
exotic  importations,  it  has  never  seen  a building  possessing 
even  the  appearance  of  constructive  unity.  Such  a country 
is  that  in  which  we  might  look  for  the  development  of  a style 
suitable  to  the  mixed  construction  practised  for  the  last  three 
centuries  ; and,  accordingly,  in  that  country,  such  a style 
did,  after  many  ages  of  unsuccessful  efforts,  at  length  appear, 
under  the  constellation  of  artists  that  adorned  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  system  then  developed  was  a 
new  one,  though  composed  of  classic  details.  It  affords  more 
scope  for  variety  in  general  arrangement  than  either  of  the 
pure  systems, — certainly  more  than  any  impure  ones  ; and  it 
possesses  a pliancy  that  may  be  bent  to  all  the  purposes 
probably  that  can  ever  be  required  in  buildings  of  mixed 
construction.  As  long  as  such  construction  prevails,  we  may 
safely  predict  the  continued  prevalence  of  this  architecture 
among  the  thinking. 

But  the  two  pure  systems,  perhaps  it  will  be  said,  are 
things  too  good  ever  to  be  entirely  given  up.  If  so,  far  more 
are  they  too  good  to  be  abused  and  caricatured.  If  they  are 
worth  copying  at  all,  they  are  worth  copying  completely  ; 
and  this  can  never  be  done  but  by  copying  their  construction 
as  well  as  their  decoration.  If  modern  habits  or  means  will 
not  permit  this,  they  will  not  permit  the  old  style.  Count 
the  cost,  therefore.  If  you  want  to  imitate  the  archless 
style,  your  building  must  be  archless,  or  a huge  lie.  If  you 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


261 


imitate  the  beamless  style,  it  must  be  beamless  ; and  every 
unvaulted  building,  ancient  or  modern,  that  apes  this  style, 
is  a motiveless  and  unmeaning  sham. 

Not  less  preposterous  than  the  attempt  to  revive  dead 
styles,  is  the  requirement  to  invent,  for  ordinary  buildings,  a 
new  one.  As  long  as  we  have  no  new  style  in  construction, 
we  can  have  none  in  architecture  ; but  if  we  call  the  mixed 
construction  a new  kind,  we  have  a new  style  adapted  to  it, 
— a modern,  a living  style  ; the  growth  of  modern  circum- 
stances and  of  the  existing  modes  of  construction  : — new, 
moreover,  inasmuch  as  we  are  only  on  the  threshold  of  its 
possible  combinations  and  varieties,  far  more  inexhaustible 
than  those  of  either  of  the  pure  systems.  In  this  country 
particularly,  the  beauties  of  the  modern  architecture  are 
hardly  known,  nor  can  it  be  said  to  have  ever  had  a fair  trial, 
or  indeed  any  trial  in  more  than  one  or  two  classes  of  build- 
ings.* It  would  be  ridiculous  self-conceit  in  an  architect,  to 
pretend  wilfully  to  go  back  and  try  to  solve  anew  that  which 
has  been  already  solved,  and  only  by  the  succession  of  a long 
line  of  great  artists.  He  can  never  hope  to  overtake  them 
with  such  a start  in  their  favor  ; while  by  commencing  from 
the  point  they  reached,  the  poorest  talents  may  advance 
beyond  them. 

But  while  no  inventive  architect  would  wish  for  a new 
style,  convinced  that  there  is  far  more  scope  for  variety  and 
new  combination  in  one  already  enriched  with  the  accumulated 
genius  of  three  centuries  ; it  is  certain  that,  in  another  point 
of  view,  a new  style  is  indispensable.  There  is  a class  of 
buildings  tending  towards  a new  style  of  construction, — be- 
coming less  mixed  in  this  respect, — and  approaching  a con- 
sistent use  of  tensile  covering  to  the  exclusion  of  every  other. 

* What  are  called  classic  churches,  for  instance,  are  . for  the  most  part,  mere 
anti-art,  no  more  Classic  than  they  are  Chinese.  Wren  had  no  opportunity  of 
erecting  a handsome  parish  church.  His  pupils  fell  either  into  littleness  or 
Eorominian  corruption  ; and  since  their  time,  there  have  only  been  hole-in-the- 
wall  preaching  rooms, — sham  temples, — and  now  pseudo-Gothicesque  barns,  copies 
of  copies  by  mediaeval  village  masons.  England  does  not  possess  a modern  church 
in  the  modern  style. 


262 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


To  this  third  system  of  constructive  unity,  there  is  no  old 
style  adapted.  None  was  invented  for  it.  It  is  a new  thing, 
and  its  treatment  must  be  new, — new,  because  subject  to  old 
principles  ; and  to  be  effected  only  by  a patient  search  into 
those  old  principles.  Let  us  not  mistake  what  we  have  to  do. 
It  is  that  which  has  been  done  only  twice  before  ; in  the  time 
of  Dorus,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century.  We  must  carefully 
attend  to  the  modes  by  which  it  was  effected  on  both  those 
occasions.  On  the  first  it  was  done  most  perfectly.  There 
was  the  least  to  do.  There  was  no  lumber  of  a rotten  system 
to  sweep  away.  There  was  falsehood  indeed  to  rectify,  but 
it  was  only  decorative,  not  constructive,  and  probably  un- 
backed by  prejudices  and  precedent.  The  second  purification 
was  less  complete,  but  more  like,  in  circumstances,  to  that 
now  required.  Its  grand  impediments  were  prejudices  in 
favor  of  old  but  useless  forms,  and  against  an  useful  member 
(the  buttress,),  under  the  notion  that  it  was  unarchitectural. 
So  is  it  now.  The  method  of  tying  buildings  together,  (said 
Wren,)  instead  of  giving  the  arches,  &c.,  sufficient  butment, 
is  contrary  to  the  principles  of  sound  architecture.  Yes, 
contrary  to  the  only  two  systems  of  architecture  known  to 
him  or  to  us,  but  not  therefore  contrary  to  all  possible 
systems.  A Greek  would  have  condemned  thus  the  method 
of  wedging  stones  together  by  lateral  pressure  ; and  after 
this  method  was  introduced  and  used  in  all  buildings,  it  was 
fifteen  centuries  before  architects  could  be  brought  to  admit 
the  appearance  of  this  lateral  pressure.  For  a still  longer 
period  has  tension  been  a principle  of  building,  and  yet  not 
of  architecture  ; much  longer  has  the  tie  been  struggling  for  . 
admission,  and  been  refused.  As  nothing  was  effected  to- 
wards the  development  of  the  second  system  till  the  arch 
covering  became  universal, — till  a building  became  beamless; 
so  can  no  advance  toward  the  third  be  expected  till  this 
constructive  principle  becomes  universal,  in  the  widest  cover- 
ing and  in  the  narrowest, — till  a building  be  erected  both 
without  lintel  and  without  butment 


OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


263 


If  the  retaining  of  useless  entablatures  after  their  office 
was  superseded  by  the  arch,  was  a falsehood  and  a hindrance 
necessary  to  be  swept  away  before  any  progress  could  be 
effected, — have  we  not  a perfect  parallel  in  the  retaining  of 
useless  buttresses  after  their  duty  has  been  superseded  by  the 
tie  ? 

There  is,  among  other  art-destroying  fallacies,  a notion 
now  prevalent,  that  architectural  styles  spring  up  of  them- 
selves, and  that  if  we  wait  long  enough,  in  process  of  time  a 
new  one  may  grow  up,  we  know  not  how.  A new  railway 
is  more  likely  to  grow  up.  Decorative  manners , fashions , are 
not  to  be  confounded  with  a new  style,  still  less  with  a new 
system,  such  as  the  two,  the  only  two,  that  possess  con- 
structive and  decorative  unity.  Yet  even  a new  fashion  does 
not  come  unsoughtv — without  search  after  novelty.  Far  less 
can  an  architectural  system  arise  but  by  an  earnest  and 
rightly  directed  search  after  truth.  For  five  thousand  years 
have  all  the  nations  beyond  the  radius  of  Greek  influence 
sought  a true  system  of  beam  architecture,  and  never  found 
it.  For  fifteen  centuries  did  Europeans  use  the  arch,  and 
seek  a system  of  arch  architecture,  before  they  found  it.  For 
a much  longer  time  have  Arabs,  Turks,  Chinese,  sought  the 
same,  and  Tiever  attained  it.  For  twenty  centuries  did  the 
Italians  practise  mixed  construction,  and  seek  a system 
thereof,  before  they  attained  it.  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves  : 
a style  never  grew  of  itself  ; it  never  will.  It  must  be  sought, 
and  sought  the  right  way.  We  may  blunder  on  in  a wrong 
path  forever,  and  get  no  nearer  the  goal. 

A new  style  requires  the  generalized  imitation  of  nature 
and  of  many  previous  styles  ; and  a new  system  requires,  in 
addition  to  this  (as  Professor  Whewell  has  remarked),  the 
binding  of  all  together  by  a new.  principle  of  unity,  clearly 
understood,  agreed  upon,  and  kept  constantly  in  view.  Con- 
structive statics  affords  three  such  principles, — the  depressile, 
the  compressile,  and  the  tensile  methods, — the  beam — the 
arch — the  truss ; of  which  the  two  former  have  been  made 


264 


HISTORY  AND  RUDIMENTS 


tlie  bases  of  past  systems  : the  third  is  ours,  to  be  used  in 
the  same  manner. 

Such  I believe  to  be  the  problem  Truth  propounds  to  the 
architects  of  the  present  time  ; but  its  solution  will  be  found 
utterly  hopeless,  as  long  as  we  indulge  any  hankering  after 
novelty  for  its  own  sake  ; any  mean  disposition  to  follow  in- 
stead of  correcting  popular  taste;  and  above  all,  let  none 
dare  attempt  it  till  we  have  engraved  on  our  compasses  a 
hacknied  sentence,  but  one  which  I suspect  to  contain  nearly 
the  whole  theory  of  art, — seek  not  to  seem  what  you 

WOULD  BE,  BUT  TO  BE  WHAT  YOU  WOULD  SEEM. 


GLOSSARY 


Abacus. — The  plate  or  shallow  block  forming  the  uppermost 
member  of  a capital  is  so  called  for  the  sake  of 
distinction,  for  when  a similar  one  is  placed 
beneath  the  base  of  a column,  it  is  called  a 
plinth . It  is  sometimes  square,  and  sometimes 
curved,  forming  on  the  plan  segments  of  a cir- 
cle, an  ornament  being  introduced.  Abacus. 

The  Doric  abacus  is  spoken  of  in  this  book,  and  is  here  shown 
in  a plan  of  the  capital  and  architrave  ; a a a a being  the  angles 


of  the  soffit  or  underside  of  the  abacus  which  overhang  the  echinus 
e e e e ■ and  s s the  soffit  of  the  architrave.  From  this,  the  rela- 
tion between  the  abacus  and  architrave,  and  how  much  the  former 
exceeds  or  projects  out  beyond  the  latter,  will  be  better  understood 
than  by  the  engraving  Fig.  1 in  this  book,  where  the  capital  is 
shown  only  in  elevation . 

The  next  figure  is  still  more  indispensable  for  understanding 
the  conformation  of  the  Ionic  capital.  Here  the  abacus  shows 


II. 


GLOSSARY. 


itself  only  in  front  at  / /,  over  the  two  voluted  faces,  the  rest  being 
concealed  by  the  baluster . sides  b b of  .the  .capital,  which  extend 
beyond  the  abacus,  and  convert  the  general  plan  into  more  than  a 
square.  Although  the  channels  and  other  details  of  the  baluster 
sides  are  omitted,  and  only  their  general  shape  shown,  the  engrav- 
ing explains  how  those  sides  are  reduced  by  being  hollowed  out  or 
curved  concavely  on  the  plan. 

In  the  Corinthian  Order,  a similar  curvature  is  given  to  the 


abacus  itself  on  all  its  four  sides  ; the  capital  of  this  Order  having 
that  in  common  with  the  Doric,  that  it  is  quite  regular.  One 
great  point  of  difference  between  the  Doric  and  Corinthian  abacus 
is,  that  in  the  former  the  angles  are  unsupported,  and  overhang 
the  circular  body  of  the  capital,  while  in  the  Corinthian  Order 
they  extend  outwards  diaganolly,  as  a a a a in  the  figure,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  caulicoli  or  small  volutes,  which  they  in  turn  serve 
to  cover.  The  letters  f fff  indicate  the  rosettes  or  flowers  on 
the  four  faces  of  the  abacus. 

Amphiprostyle. — A building  having  a portico  at  both  ends. 

Amphitheatre. — A theatre  of  an  elliptical  form,  or  in  other 
words,  a double  theatre,  produced  by  building  two,  end  to  end. 

Ancones  or  Trusses. — Ornaments  in  the  cornice  of  an 
Ionic  doorway,  resembling  modillions  placed  vertically. 

Amulet. — The  mouldings  at  the  lower  part  of  the  echinus 
in  Doric  capitals.  A small  square  moulding  used  to  sepa- 
rate Other  mouldings.  Ancones. 


GLOSSARY. 


III. 


Ant,e. — Square  pillars  or  pilasters,  attached  to  a wall.  They 
have  capitals  different  from  those  of  the  columns  with  which  they 
are  associated. 

Apophyge. — The  small  facise  by  which  the  shaft  is  attached  to 
the  fillet  of  the  base. 

Apteral. — A temple  without  columns  at  the  ends. 

Areostyle. — An  arrangement  of  columns,  when  four  diameters 
are  allowed  between  them. 

Architrave. — The  lowest  member  of  the  entablature  ; also, 
mouldings  round  doors  and  windows. 

Archivolt. — The  interior  face  of  an  arch,  between  the  imposts. 

Arris. — The  meeting  of  two  surfaces  producing  an  angle. 

Area. — An  open  space  within  a building. 

Astragal. — A semi-circular  moulding. 

Attic. — A small  height  of  panelling  above  the  cor- 
nice ; also,  the  upper  story  of  a house  when  the  walls 
are  perpendicular. 

Aisles. — The  spaces  on  each  side  of  a nave. 

Almery. — A niche  or  closet  introduced  in 
the  walls  of  churches  or  cathedrals,  intended 


1 

Astragal. 


Almery. 


for  the  keeping  of  valuable  articles  belong-  ~Jf 
ing  to  the  religious  service. 

Almonry. — The  building  in  which  alms  are 
distributed. 

Ambo. — A pulpit  or  raised  platform. 

Arch-Buttress,  or  Flying-Buttress. 

— An  arch  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
supporting  or  appearing  to  support  a 
spire,  or  one  springing  over  the  roof  of 
an  aisle,  and  a butting  against  the  wall  of 
the  clerestory. 

Aspersorium. — The  holy  water  basin. 

Auditorium. — The  nave  or  body  of 
the  church,  where  the  people  meet  for 

worship.  Arch-Buttress,  or  Flying-Buttress. 

Antefix^:. — Called  by  some,  Greelc,  Tiles , — upright  ornamental 
blocks  placed  at  intervals  on  the  cornice  along  the  roof,  to  conceal 
or  rather  terminate  the  ridges  formed  by  the  overlapping  of  the 
roof. 


IY. 


GLOSSARY. 


^Esthetic. — Artistic. 

Astylar. — A term  that  expresses  the  absence  of  columns  or 
pilasters,  where  they  might  else  be  supposed  to  occur. 

Axis. — An  imaginary  line  through  the  centre  of  a column,  &c. 

Baptistry. — The  place  in  which  the  rite  of  baptism  is  per- 
formed. 

Bartizan. — A turret  over  the  roof,  and  within  the  parapet  of 
any  building. 

Battlement. — An  indented  and  sometimes 
perforated  parapet. 

Bay. — The  space  between  the  ribs  of  a 
groined  roof ; also,  the  part  of  a window  be-  u,“w,ra^ttTeii^ntr 
tween  the  mullions. 


Bay-Window. — “ A projecting  window,  rising  from  the  ground, 
or  basement,  in  a semi-octagon,  semi-hexagon,  or  polygonal  form.” 

Benetier. — A vessel  for  holy  water,  usually  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  a church. 

Billet-moulding. — Cylindrical  blocks  plac- 
ed at  short  but  equal  distances  from  each 
other,  in  a hollow  moulding.  Billet-moulding 

Boss. — A carved  ornament  at  the  intersection  of  the  ribs  in  a 
groined  roof. 

Brasses. — Brass  plates  let  into  the  pavement  of  ecclesiastical 
buildings  over  or  near  tombs.  All  of  these  have  an  engraving  of 
some  sort,  and  many  of  them  are  admirably  designed,  and  elabo- 
rately engraven. 

Buttress. — A projection  from  a wall  built  between  the 
windows  and  at  the  angles  of  a building,  having  the  dou- 
ble purpose,  in  Gothic  structure,  of  strength  and  ornament. 

They  are  of  various  forms,  according  to  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Bed-mouldings. — The  mouldings  beneath  the  corona 
or  principal  projecting  member  of  a cornice.  “ \ 

Branches. — The  ribs  of  a groined  roof.  * 

Bracket. — A projection  from  the  face  of  a well  to  car- 
ry sculpture,  or  support  some  weight. 

Blocking  Course. — A solid  course  of  masonry,  above 
a cornice.  Buttress. 


GLOSSARY. 


V. 


Base. — The  part  of  a column  on  which  the  shaft  rests.  The 
term  is  also  used  to  signify  the  lower  part  of  a wall. 

Bandelet. — A very  narrow  moulding,  of  the  same  form  as  the 
band. 

Band. — A moulding  with  a square  profile. 

Balustrade. — A range  of  small  pillars  or  balusters  upon  a 
plinth,  and  surmounted  by  a cornice  or  coping. 

Baluster. — A small  pillar,  the  form  of  which  may  be  varied  at 
pleasure,  used  in  balustrades. 

Balcony. — A projection  from  the  face  of  a wall,  supported  by 
columns  or  consoles,  and  usually  surrounded  by  a balustrade. 

Cable. — A moulding  representing  a cable. 

Caissons. — Sunk  panels  in  ceilings  or  in  soffits. 

Campana. — The  part  of  a Corinthian  capital  on  which  the 
leaves  are  placed. 

Cantilevers. — Trusses  under  the  modillions  of  a frieze. 

Capital. — The  part  of  a column  on  which  a column  rests  on 
the  shaft. 

Cartouches. — Modillions  or  blocks  sup- 
porting the  eaves  of  a house. 

Casement. — The  frame  of  a window  or 
light ; also  a moulding  the  same  as  the 
scotia. 

Cavetto. — A hollow  moulding,  one 
quarter  of  a circle. 


Cartouches. 


A canal  or  groove  sunk  in  the  face  of 


x 


Channel. 
any  work. 

Colonnade. — A row  of  columns  supporting  an  entablature. 

Column. — A round  pillar,  having  a shaft  and  capital,  and  gen- 
erally a base. , 

Coping. — A sloping  stone  on  the  top  of  a wall,  to  throw  off  the 
rain-water. 

Corbel. — A projection  from  the  surface  of  a wall,  to  carry  a 
weight,  and  generally  ornamented. 

Cornice. — The  upper  division  of  an  entablature,  composed  of 
several  members,  and  varying  according  to  the  order. 

Corona. — A large  square  member  of  a cornice,  between  the 
cymatium  and  bed-mouldings.  It  is  intended  to  protect  the  parts 
beneath  it,  and  has  a considerable  projection.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  larmier,  but  more  frequently  the  drip. 


T I. 


GLOSSARY. 


irmir, 


Cyma  Recta. — A compound  moulding,  hollow  in  

the  upper,  round  in  the  lower  part.  Cyma  Recta^ 

Cyma  Reyersa. — A moulding,  the  reverse  of  the  cyma  recta. 

Cymatium. — The  upper  moulding  of  an  entablature. 

Cable-moulding. — A moulding  used  in  Nor- 
man architecture,  and  deriving  its  name  from  its 
form. 

Canopy. — An  ornamental  projection  over 
doors,  windows,  and  niches,  chiefly  introduced 
in  the  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  English. 

Carol. — A small  closet  in  a cloister. 

Catherine-wheel  Window. — A circular 
window,  usually  with  a rich  radiating  tracery. 


Cable-moulding. 


Chapels. — Small  buildings  attached  to  cathe- 


Canopy. 


Chantry. — A small  chapel  at  the  side  of  a church. 

Chevron,  or  Zig-Zag.— A characteristic  moulding  in  Norman 
buildings. 

Choir. — The  space  eastward  of  the  cross  in  churches  having 
that  form,  and  between  the  nave  and  high  altar. 

Cinquefoil. — An  ornament  representing  the  leaves  of 
a flower  or  leaf,  used  in  Gothic  architecture. 

Clere-story. — The  upper  story  or  row  of  windows  in  Cin<luefoil 
a Gothic  church. 

Cloisters. — Covered  passage  ways  to  different  parts  of  an 
ecclesiastical  building. 

Crocket. — An  ornament  resembling  a 
bunch  of  flowers  or  foliage,  chiefly  used  at 
the  angles  of  pinnacles  and  canopies. 

Crypt. — A vaulted  chamber  under  a 
church,  generally  under  the  eastern  end  ; 
and  used  either  as  a place  of  sepulture,  an 
oratory,  or  baptistry. 

Cusps. — The  ornaments  at  the  points  of  the  tracery  in  Gothic 
windows  ; or  according  to  some,  the  arcs  which  the  ornaments 
terminate. 

Caryatides. — Pillars  where  human  figures,  instead  of  columns, 
are  used  to  support  an  entablature. 

Dado,  or  Die.— The  plain  part  of  a pedestal. 


Crocket . 


GLOSSARY. 


VII. 


Dentils —Square  projecting  blocks  in  the  bed-  rj~[j  "|'|~TT~[TT 
moulds  of  the  entablatures.  They  are  so  called  Dentils> 
from  a fancied  resemblance  to  a row  of  teeth. 

Dodecastyle. — A building  with  twelve  columns  in  front. 

Donjon,  or  Keep. — A massive  tower  in  ancient  castles,  usually 
in  the  centre. 

Dovetail-moulding. — A characteristic  Nor-  — ■ - 


Dungeon. — The  vault  for  prisoners,  usually 
the  basement  of  the  Donjon. 


7A\7/\T 

Dovetail-moulding. 


Echinus. — An  egg-shaped  ornament  in  the  Ionic 

Capital.  Echinus. 

Entablature. — The  uppermost  division  of  a column,  supported 
by  the  shaft. 

Eustyle. — Two  and  a quarter  diameters  between  the  columns. 

Embrasure  or  Crenelle. — A splayed  opening  in  a wall ; an 
opening  in  a battlement. 

Elevation. — An  upright  plan  of  a building  or  any  part  of  a 
building,  showing  its  exact  form  and  dimensions  as  they  actually 
exist. 

Entasis. — A slightly  convex  curvature  given  in  execution  to 
the  outline  of  the  shaft  of  a column,  just  sufficient  to  counteract 
and  correct  the  appearance,  or  fancied  appearance,  of  curvature  in 
a contrary  direction,  (i.  e.  concavely,)  which  might  else  take 
place,  and  cause  the  middle  of  the  shaft  to  appear  thinner  than  it 
really  is. 

Epistylum. — The  architrave  or  horizontal  course  resting  imme- 
diately upon  the  columns.  Hence  we  should  denote  as  Epistylar 
Arcuation  that  system  in  which  columns  support  arches  instead  of 
horizontal  architraves  and  entablatures. 

Epitithedas. — The  cymatium  on  the  sloping  or  raking  cornices 
of  a pediment,  which  superimposed  moulding  (as  its  name  implies) 
was  frequently  largely  developed,  and  enriched  with  an  ornamental 
pattern. 

Feathering  or  Foliation. — Smalls  arcs  or  foils  in  the  tracery 
of  Gothic  windows.  According  to  the  numbers  uniting,  they  are 
called  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  cinquefoils,  or  multifoils. 

Finial. — The  ornament  which  crowns  a pinnacle  on  canopy. 

Font. — A vase  used  for  baptism. 


VIII. 


GLOSSARY. 


Facade. — The  elevation  or  view  of  the  principal  front  of  any 
"building. 

Fascia,  or  Facia. — -A  broad  flat  member,  in  an  architrave, 
cornice,  or  pedestal. 

Fillet. — A small  square  member,  dividing  mouldings. 

Flutings. — Perpendicular  channels  in  the  shaft  of  a column. 

Frieze. — The  middle  division  of  an  entablature. 

Fenestration. — In  contra- 
distinction from  eolumniation, 
the  system  of  construction  and 
mode  of  design  marked  by  win- 
dows. 


Gable. 


Gattae 


Gable. — The  triangular  ma- 
sonry or  woodwork  at  the  end 
of  a roof.  Some  of  the  old  ga- 
ble ends  are  curiously  carved. 

Glyphs.— Vertical  channels  in  the  Doric  frieze. 

GuttjE. — Ornaments  resembling  drops,  under  the  1 
mutules  of  the  Doric  entablature. 

Gablet. — A small  gable  in  screens,  &c. 

Gargoyle. — The  projecting  water-spout, 
generally  ornamented  with  the  head  of  a man, 
a monster,  or  some  appropriate  emblem. 

Groin. — The  lines  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion Of  two  Or  more  vaults.  Gargoyle. 

Heptastyle. — A building  with  seven  colums  in  front. 

Hexastyle. — A building  with  six  columns  in  front. 

Hatched-moulding. — A moulding  used  in 
Norman  Architecture,  with  ornaments  of  a tri- 
angular form,  and  having  the  appearance  of  be- 
ing cut  with  a hatchet. 

Hovel. — A niche , or  canopy  for  a statue. 

Hypotrachelium. — The  necking  of  a capital  introduced  be- 
tween the  capital  itself  and  the  shaft  of  the  column. 


Hatched-mouldm : 


Inpost, — The  abacus  which  crowns  a pilaster  or  pier,  and  from 
which  an  arch  springs  ; also,  the  capital  of  a pilaster  which  sus- 
tains an  arch. 


GLOSSARY. 


IX. 


Intercolumniation. — The  distance  between  one  column  and 
another. 

Jube. — A gallery  or  rood-loft  over  the  choir,  to  the  front  of 
which  was  generally  attached  a pulpit. 

Keep. — The  most  elevated  and  innermost  tower  of  a castle. 
Knob. — The  boss  at  the  crowning  of  a groin. 


Label,  or  Hood-moulding. — The  outer  moulding  over  doors 
or  windows. 

Lavatory. — A stone  basin  attached  to  the  altar,  used  by  the 
priest  during  mass  to  dip  or  wash  his  hands. 

Lettern,  or  Lectern. — A reading-desk,  commonly  of  brass. 
Lozenge-moulding. — A moulding  used  in  — — ^ 
Norman  architecture. 


Lozenge-irruuldmg. 

Metope. — The  interval  between  the  triglyphs  in  a Doric  frieze, 
often  ornamented  with  sculptures. 

Modillion. — An  ornament  in  the  Corinthian 
and  Composite  orders,  resembling  a bracket. 

Mutules. — Small  block  ornaments  under  the 
corona  in  the  Doric  order.  Metope. 

Mullions. — The  upright  shafts  dividing  a window  into  separate 
light. 

Misereres. — Shelving  seats  in  the  stalls  of  churches  and  cathe- 
drals. 

Merlon. — The  solid  part  of  an  embattled  parapet. 

Machicolations. — The  perpendicular  openings  left  between  the 
corbels  of  a battlement  over  gateways  and  doors,  intended  to  afford 
facilities  for  annoying  assailants. 

Mouldings.— The  principal  mouldings  and  the  difference  of 
their  profiles  in  the  Grecian  and  Roman  styles  are  here  exhibited. 


X. 


GLOSSARY. 


Greek. 


Roman. 


Cyma  m 
Recta. 


Scotia. 


Torus. 


Monotriglyphic. — That  mode  of  intercolumniation  in  the 
Boric  Order,  according  to  which  there  is  only  a single  triglyph 
over  each  intercolumn. 

Module. — The  semi-diameter  of  the  column,  or  30  minutes. 

Minute. — The  sixtieth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  column,  as 
a proportional  measure.  Minutes  are  written  thus,  8',  that  is, 
eight  minutes. 

Nave. — The  central  division  of  a church  between  the  aisles. 


Ovolo. — A convex  moulding,  a quarter  of  a circle,  ^ - 

and  sometimes  called  a quarter  round.  ' 0volo  “ 


GLOSSARY. 


XI. 


Oratory. — A private  chapel  for  prayer. 
Oriel. — A window  projecting  from  a 
wall. 


Parapet. — A wall  about  breast  high,  at 
the  top  of  a house,  or  on  a bridge,  intended 
as  a defence.  It  is  sometimes  ornamented, 
sometimes  plain. 

Patera. — An  ornament  in  a frieze,  re- 
sembling a goblet. 

Pedestal. — A square  piece  of  masonry  supporting  the  base  of 
the  column,  and  consisting  of  a base,  die  and  cornice. 

Pediment. — The  triangular  form  above  the  columns  in  the 
front  and  back  of  a building  ; also  the  same  over  windows  and 
doors. 

Pentastyle. — A portico  of  five  columns. 

Peripteral. — A temple  having  columns  all  round. 

Pier. — A solid  pilaster  or  column  from  which  an  arch  springs, 
or  carrying  a weight ; also,  the  solid  mass  between  the  doors  or 
windows  of  a building,  or  between  the  arches  of  a bridge. 

Pilaster. — This  term  is  not  synonymous  with  the  word  col- 
umn. In  the  latter,  a regular  and  almost  undeviating  proportion 
is  maintained  between  the  several  parts,  but  in  the  former,  the 
same  arrangement  of  parts  is  not  adopted. 

Platband. — A square  member,  with  a projection  less  than 
either  the  height  or  breadth. 

Plinth. — A solid  mass  under  the  base  of  a column. 

Podium. — A running  pedestal,  supporting  a series  of  columns 
round  a building. 

Portico. — A horizontal  projection  in  the  front  of  a building, 
supported  by  columns. 

Pix. — The  shrine  to  contain  the  host  or  consecrated  wafers. 

Porch. — A small  covered  entrance  into  a building. 

Panel. — A small  compartment  enclosed  with  mouldings,  and 
generally  decorated  with  an  ornament,  or  sculpture. 

Pendent. — An  ornament  hanging  from  a roof. 

Perches. — Brackets  in  churches,  for  images  or  candlesticks. 


XII. 


GLOSSARY. 


Pinnacle. — A small  spire,  or  pointed  termination  to 
towers,  turrets,  and  buttresses,  generally  with  four  sides, 
and  more  or  less  ornamented. 

Plan. — A plan  may  be  familiarly  described  as  an  arch- 
itectural map,  or  map  of  a building.  To  define  it  more 
exactly,-— a plan  is  a horizontal  section  supposed  to  be  ta- 
ken on  the  level  of  the  floor  through  the  solid  parts  of  the 
fabric,  walls,  columns,  &c.,  so  as  to  show  their  various 
thicknesses  and  situations. 

Polystyle. — Having  a number  of  columns.  Where 
Columns  occur  behind  columns,  as  where  a portico  has 
inner  columns,  such  portico  may  be  termed  a polystyle . Pinnacle. 

Profile. — The  outline  of  a series  of  mouldings,  or  of  any  other 
parts,  as  shown  by  a section  through  them. 

Pulvinated.— A frieze  whose  face  is  convex  instead  of  plain  is 
said  to  be  pulvinated,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  that  side 
of  a cushion  which  swells  out  when  pressed*. 

Quatrefoil. — An  ornament  representing  four  leaves 
of  a flower,  formed  within  a circle. 

Rustic. — Stone  or  compo  work,  channelled  verti- 
cally and  horizontally. 

Rood. — A cross  with  a figure  of  our  Saviour  on  it. 

Rood  Loft. — A gallery  generally  over  the  screen,  or  at  the 
entrance  of  the  choir,  in  which  a rood  was  in  former  times  placed. 

Raking  Cornices. — A term  applied  to  the  inclined  cornices  on 
the  sloping  side  of  a pediment. 

Scotia. — A hollow  moulding,  chiefly  used  in  the  base  of  the 
Ionic  column. 

Scroll. — A spiral  ; the  volute  of  the  Ionic  capital. 

Shaft. — That  part  of  a column  between  the  capital  and  base. 

Spire. — The  pyramidical  structure  crowning  a tower  or  turret. 

Spandril. — The  triangular  space  be- 
tween an  arch  and  the  right  angle  above 
it. 

Stalls. — Elevated  seats  on  the  sides  of 
a choir  in  cathedrals,  with  canopies  over 
them,  appropriated  for  ecclesiastics. 

Stancheon. — The  upright  bar  or  mul- 
lion  which  divides  a window  into  bays. 


Spandril. 


Quatrefoil. 


GLOSSARY. 


XIII. 


Steeple. — A tower  rising  above  the  roof  of  a church. 

Section. — A vertical  plan  of  the  interior  of  a building,  showing 
it  as  it  would  appear  upon  an  upright  plane  cutting  through  it. 

Soffit. — From  the  Italian  soffitto,  a ceiling  ; the  under  surface 
of  any  projecting  moulding  or  member. 

Stylobate. — That  part  of  a structure  on  which  an  order  is 
raised,  and  on  which  the  columns  immediately  stand.  The  term 
is,  however,  restricted  to  what  partakes  of  the  character  of  a 
pedestal,  and  not  to  a mere  plinth  or  socle  on  the  one  hand,  or  to 
a lower  fenestrated  floor  on  the  other. 


Tetrastyle. — A building  with  four  columns  in  front. 
Torus. — A semi-circular  moulding.  d 


Triglypli. 


Triglyph. — The  vertical  channels  in  the  Doric  Torus, 
frieze. 

Tympanum. — The  triangular  surface  enclosed  by  the 
pediment.  In  the  ancient  temples  it  was  frequently 
decorated  with  sculptures. 

Tabernacle. — A stall  or  niche  detached  fom  the 
wall,  with  a canopy  over  it. 

Tablet. — A projecting  moulding,  more  particularly  that  under 
a window. 

Transept. — That  part  of  a church  or  cathedral  which  runs 
north  and  south,  forming  the  arms  of  a cross. 

Tracery. — The  frame-work  and  ornament  in  the  head  of  a 
window  or  screen. 

Transom. — The  horizontal  bar  dividing  a window  into  lights. 

Trefoil. — An  ornament  representing  three  leaves  of 
a flower,  formed  within  a circle.  4\\ 

Tudor  Flower. — An  ornament  employed  for  open 
parapets.  Trefoil. 


Undercroft. — The  crypt  or  vault  of  a church. 

Y olute, — The  spirals  on  an  Ionic  capital. 

Y estibule. — The  large  hall  or  passage. 

Weepers. — The  statues  of  Grief,  at  the  base  of  a tomb  or  mon- 
ument. 


Zig-Zag. — See  Chevron. 


THIS  ENGRAVING  SHOWS  THE  FRIEZE,  CAPITAL  AND  BASE 
EMPLOYED  IN  THE  FRONT  OF  ST.  PAUL’S  SCHOOL, 

st.  Paul’s  church  yard,  London. 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 
3 3125  0083]  ■ 


